WORK STUDY

INTRODUCTION
 With increasing complexities of the
technological world, need to simplify the work
system has been increasing day by day.

 Work study is an area of knowledge that

addresses the problem of work simplification
with the basic objectives of

PRODUCTIVITY ENHANCEMENT,
HUMAN COMFORT & SAFETY
EVOLUTION OF WORK STUDY

• FREDERICK W.TAYLOR: founder of modern method and time study.

• Taylor began his time study work in 1881.
• He established that each job should have a standard time,
determined by time studies.
• In the timing process Taylor advocated dividing the work into small
divisions of
 effort known as elements.
• Time was obtained for these element individually and their
collective values were
used to determine the allowed time for the task.
 WORK OF GILBERTHs

• Frank and Lilian Gilbreth is considered as the founder of

‘modern motion study technique’.
• Which is defined as the study of body motions used in
performing an operation for the purpose of improving the
operation by :
 Eliminating unnecessary motions
 Simplifying necessary motions
 Then establishing the most favorable motion sequence for
maximum efficiency
 Frederick W. Taylor (1856‐1915)
• First engineer in the history studying on the time study.
• Taylor states that "...in these experiments we were not
trying to find the maximum work that a man could do
on a short time but to learn what really constitutes a
full day's work for a first class man, the best day's
work that a man could properly do...”

Taylorism
• Which is the best way to do this job?
• What should constitute a day's work?
• Selection of the best worker, training, teaching him
• The division of the work equally
• Time study
– Divide each task into work elements
– Time each element separately
– Useful than timing the whole task
 Gilbreths
Motion‐study:
Study of the body motions, eliminating unnecessary motions,
simplifying necessary motions, and then establishing the most
favorable motion sequence for maximum efficiency.

Divided work into basic motion elements called “THERBLIGS”

• There is “one best method” to perform a given task
• Bricklaying: 120 to 350 per man per hour
• Micromotion study
–The technique of filming motions to study
–Cyclegraph
–Choronocyclegraph
 DEFINITION

“Work study is defined as that body of knowledge

concerned with the analysis of the work
methods and the equipment used in performing
a job, the design of an optimum work method
and the standardization of proposed work
methods.”
 PRINCIPLES OF WORK STUDY

1.Must come from the top level management.

2.People made aware of the objectives and the need
of the exercising such study.
3.Method study must precede work measurement .
OBJECTIVES
 To analyze the present method of doing a job,
systematically in order to develop a new and better
method.
 To measure the work content of a job by measuring the
time required to do the job for a qualified worker and
hence to establish standard time.
 To increase the productivity by ensuring the best
possible use of human, machine and material resources
and to achieve best quality product/service at minimum
possible cost.
 To improve operational efficiency.
 To reduce waste through standardization of work
elements of a job.
COMPONENTS /
TECHNIQUES OF WORK STUDY
WORK
STUDY METHOD STUDY
• Motion Study : The systematic recording
and critical examination of existing and
proposed ways of doing work as a means of
developing and applying easier and more
effective methods and reducing costs.

WORK MEASUREMENT
• Time Study : The application of techniques, designed to
establish the time for a qualified worker, to carry out a
specified job at a defined level of performance.
BENEFITS OF WORK STUDY

 Increased productivity and operational efficiency

 Reduced manufacturing costs

 Improved work place layout
 Better manpower planning and capacity planning
 Fair wages to employees
 Better working conditions to employees
 WORK
CONTENT

Basic work content

Excess work content

7
MANUFACTURING
TIME

9
 REASONS FOR EXCESS WORK
CONTENT
A. Defects in design

B. Inefficient methods of manufacture

C. Short-comings of the mgt.

D. Work-man attributes
8
Method Study
 METHOD
STUDY
Work Methods analysis or methods study is
a scientific technique of observing,
recording, and critically examining the
present method of performing a task or job
operation with the aim of improving the
present method and developing a new and
cheaper method.
10
 METHOD
STUDY
Objectives
Critical examination of facts
Develop best possible solution
Eliminate unnecessary
operations
Add value & Avoid delays
Optimize 3M
11
ADVANTAGES OF METHODs STUDY

• Work simplification
• Improved working method ( cheaper method)
• Better product quality
• Improved work place layout
• Improved equipment design
• Better working conditions
• Better material handling and lesser material
handling cost
 Cont.
ADVANTAGES OF METHODs STUDY
• Improved workflow
• Less fatigue to operator
• Optimum utilization of all resources
• Higher safety to work men
• Shorter production cycle time
• Higher job satisfaction of workmen
• Reduce material consumption and wastage
• Reduced manufacturing cost and higher
productivity

 Factors Facilitating OF METHODs
STUDY
• High operating cost
• High wastage & scrap
• Excessive movement of materials and
workmen
• Excessive production bottlenecks
• Excessive rejections and rework
• Complaints about quality
• Complaints about poor working conditions
• Increasing number of accidents
• Excessive use of overtime
PROCESS ANALYSIS
METHOD STUDY
PROCEDURE
SELECT
RECORD

EXAMINE

DEVELOP

DEFINE
12

INSTALL
MAINTAI
Method Study Procedure

1. Select the work or job to be studied and define

objectives to be achieved by method study.
2. Record all relevant facts or information pertaining to
the existing method using the recording techniques such
as
* Process Charts: Outline Process Chart
Operation Process Chart
Flow Process Chart
Man-Machine Chart
Cont.

Process Charts: Multiple Activity Chart

Simultaneous Motion Chart
Motion Chart
Film Analysis Chart
PROCESS CHARTS

 A device for recording a process in a compact manner,

as a means of better understanding it and improving it.
 The chart represents graphically the separate steps or
events that occur during the performance of a task or
during a series of actions.
 The common symbols (of which there are only five)
were first promulgated by the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers and have become known as the
ASME symbols.
The Gilbreth Process Chart

OPERATION
An operation occurs when an object is
intentionally changed in one or more of its
characteristics. An operation represents a
major step in the process and usually occurs at
a machine or work station.
Examples: Drive Nail, Drill Hole, Type letter
Cont.

TRANSPORTATION
A transportation occurs when an object is
moved from one place to another, except when
the movement is an integral part of an
operation or an inspection.
Examples: Move material by truck, Move
material by hoist or elevator, Move material by
carrying
Cont.

INSPECTION
An inspection occurs when an object is
examined for identification or is
compared with a standard as to
quantity or quality.
EXAMPLES: Examine material for
quality or quantity, Read steam gauge
on boiler, Examine printed form for
information
Cont.

DELAY
A delay occurs when the immediate performance
of the next planned action does not take place.
EXAMPLES: Material in truck or on floor at bench
waiting to be processed, Employee waiting for
elevator, Papers waiting to be filed
Cont.

STORAGE
A storage occurs when an object is kept under
control such as that its withdrawal requires
authorization.
EXAMPLES: Bulk storage of raw material,
Finished product in warehouse, Documents and
records in storage vault
Cont.

 COMBINED SYMBOLS
Example:

Two symbols may be combined when

activities are performed at the same
workplace or when they are performed
concurrently as one activity.
Example: A product is being weighed
when it is repacked. (In an automatic
process where a milk tin is weighed.)
Operation Process Chart

 A graphic representation that gives an overall view

of an entire process, including the points at which
materials are introduced, the sequence of
inspections, and all operations not involved in
material handling.
 Two symbols are used in constructing the operation
process chart: a small circle denoted an operation,
and a small square denotes an inspection.
Cont.

 Vertical lines indicate the general flow of the process

as work is accomplished, while horizontal lines
feeding into the vertical flow lines indicate material,
either purchased or worked on during process.
Flow Process Chart

 Records the steps in a process along a vertical line,

with the action type being shown by a symbol
alongside a description of the action, as in the
illustration.
Man and Machine Chart/SimoChart

 A chart relation of how much time the machine spend

while the man or the operator spending his time on
his job.
 It is used to study, analyze, and improve one
workstation at a time.
Flow Diagram

 The best way to provide this information is to take an

existing drawing of the plant areas involved and then
sketch in the flow lines, indicating the movement of
the material from one activity to the next.
 A pictorial representation of the layout of floors and
buildings, showing the locations of all activities on the
flow process chart.
String Diagram

 A simple tool for analyzing and designing work spaces

such that movement can be minimized.
 The basic diagram simply consists of a map of the
work area, with the actual movements drawn on top.
 Cont.
Method Study Procedure
3. Examine the above facts critically: - Critical Examination is
done by questioning technique. This step comes after the
method is recorded by suitable charts and diagrams.
 The individual activity is examined by putting a number of
questions. The following factors are questioned
• Purpose – To eliminate the activity, if possible.
- What is actually done?
- Why is it done?
- What else could be done?
- What should be done?
• Place – To combine or re-arrange the activities.
- Where is it being done?
- Why is it done there?
- Where else could it be done?
- Where should it be done?
• Sequence – To combine or re-arrange the activities.
- When is it done?
- Why is it dine then?
- When could it be done?
- When should it be done?
• Person – To combine or re-arrange the activities.
- Who is doing it?
- Why does that person do it?
- Who else could do it?
- Who should do it?
 Means – To simplify the activity.
- How is it done?
- Why is it done that way?
- How else could it be done?
- How should it be done?
By doing this questioning…
 Unwanted activities can be eliminated.
 Number of activities can be combined or re-arranged.
 Method can be simplified.
All these will reduce production time.
 Cont.
Methods Study Procedure
4. Develop the improved method by generating several
alternatives and selecting the best method.
The answer to the questions given below will result in the
development of a better method.
 PURPOSE – What should be done?
 PLACE – Where should it be done?
 SEQUENCE – When should it be done?
 PERSON – Who should do it?
 MEANS – How should it be done?
 The factors to be considered while evaluating
alternatives and selecting the best method are:

 Cost of implementation
 Expected savings in time and cost
 Feasibility
 Producibility
 Acceptance to design, production planning and control,
quality control, production and sales departments.
 Reaction of employees to new method
 Short term or long term implication of alternatives
Cont.
Methods Study Procedure
5. Define
Once a complete study of a job has been made and a
new method is developed, it is necessary to obtain the
approval of the management before installing it. The
work study man should prepare a report giving details of
the existing and proposed methods. He should give his
reasons for the changes suggested.
The report should show:

 Brief description of the old method.

 Brief description of the new method.
 Reasons for change.
 Advantages and limitations of the new methods.
 Savings expected in material, labour and overheads.
 Tools and equipment required for the new method.
 The cost of installing the new method including.
* Cost of new tools and equipment.
* Cost of re-layout of the shop.
* Cost of training the workers in the new method.
* Cost of improving the working conditions.
Cont.
Methods Study Procedure
6. Install the improved method in three phases –
planning, arranging and implementation phases.
This step is the most difficult stage in method study.
Here the active support of both management and trade
union is required. Here the work study man requires skill
in getting along with other people and winning their
trust.
Install stage consists of:

 Gaining acceptance of the change by supervisor.

 Getting approval of management.
 Gaining the acceptance of change by workers and
trade unions.
 Giving training to operators in the new method.
 To be in close contact with the progress of the job until
it is satisfactorily executed.
 Cont.
Methods Study Procedure
7. Maintain the new method by ensuring that the
installed method is functioning well.
The work study man must see that the new method
introduced is followed. The workers after some time may
slip back to the old methods. This should not be allowed.
The new method may have defects. There may be
difficulties also. This should be rectified in time by the
work study man.
Periodical review is made. The reactions and suggestions
from the workers and supervisors are noted. This may
lead to further improvement.
WORK METHODS DESIGN –
DEVELOPING A BETTER
METHOD
Search for Possible Solutions –
Develop the preferred method
 The following approaches should be considered in
developing possible solutions from which the
preferred work method will be selected:
A. Eliminate all unnecessary work.
B. Combine operations or elements.
C. Change the sequence of operations./ Re-layout
D.Simplify the necessary operations.
Eliminate All Unnecessary Work

 In many instances, the job or the process should not

be a subject for simplification or improvement, but
rather it should be eliminated entirely.
 Example:
 Packing Lettuce in Cartons. Formerly lettuce was
packed and shipped in large wood crates holding a
total pf approximately 125 pounds. In packing, Ice was
interspersed between the layers of lettuce.
 A better method of packing has been developed, using a
carton which holds approximately 50 pounds. The
lettuce is selected, cut, and packed directly into the
carton in the field. Shortly thereafter, the packaged
lettuce is quickly cooled to 36 to 38 degrees in a
vacuum cooling plant, and it is not necessary to place
ice in the carton. Most of the lettuce grown in California
is now packed in cartons instead of boxes. The result is a
saving of approximately $3 per box, and some 60,000
carloads of lettuce are shipped out of California each
year. The use of ice in packing lettuce was eliminated,
and the substitution of a fiberboard carton for a wood
crate further reduced the packing cost.
Combine Operations or Elements

 Although it is a customary to break down a process into

many simple operations, in some instances the division
of labor has been carried too far. It is possible to
subdivide a process into too many operations causing
excessive handling of materials, tools and equipment.
 It is sometimes possible to make the work easier by
simply combining two or more operations, or by making
some changes in method permitting operations to be
combined.
 Example:
 See Figure 25
This shows how two short conveyors installed at the end
of a molding machine in a furniture factory replaced the
off-bearer and made it possible for one person to do the
work of two. The operator shown in the picture feeds the
stock into the machine and places the finished molding
strips in the truck as they come back to him on the
conveyor. The truck shown is divided into four sections,
only three of which are used to bring up raw stock; the
fourth receives the finished strips as they come from the
machine. This plan reduced the number of trucks
needed and also saved the floor space.
Change the Sequence of Operations

 When a new product goes into production it is

frequently made in small quantities on an
experimental basis. Production often increases
gradually, and in time output becomes large, but the
original sequence of operations may be kept the same
as when production was small. For this and for other
reasons it is desirable to question the order in which
the various operations are performed.
Simplify the Necessary Operations

 Aftfer the process has been studied and all

improvements that seem worthwhile have been made,
the next step is to analyze each operation in the
process and try to simplify or improve it. In other
words, the over-all picture is studied first and major
changes are made; then the smaller details of the
work are studied.
 This is done through questioning technique.
Operation Analysis
 Operation Chart

 For those who are trained in the micromotion study technique

– that is, those who are able to visualize work in terms of
elemental motions of the hands – the operation chart, or THE
LEFT-AND RIGHT-HAND CHART, is a very simple and effective
aid for analyzing an operation.
 No timing device is needed, and on most kinds of work the
analyst is able to construct such a chart from observations of
the operator at work.
 The principal purpose of such chart is to assist in finding a
better way of performing the task, but this chart also has
definite value in training operators.
 Two symbols are commonly used in making operation
charts. The small circle indicates a transportation,
such as moving the hand to grasp an article, and the
large circle denotes such actions as grasping,
positioning, using or releasing the article.
 Note: The first step in making an operation chart
or a left-and-right hand chart is to draw a sketch
of the workplace, indicating the contents of the
bins and the location of the tools and materials.
Operation Chart Showing the movements of the
two hands in signing a letter
Operation Chart of Bolt and Washer
Assembly – Old Method
LEFT HAND RIGHT HAND
Carries finished assembly to bin 1 Reaches for lock washer in bin 3
Releases assembly into bin 1 Grasps lock washer from bin 3
Reaches for bolt in bin 2
Carries lock washer to
Grasps bolt from bin 2
central position
Carries bolt to central position Positions lock washer
Assembles lock washer onto bolt

Reaches for plain steel washer in bin

4
Grasps steel washer from bin 4
Carries steel washer to bolt
Positions steel washer
Holds bolt Assembles steel washer

Reaches for rubber washer in bin 5

Grasps rubber washer from bin 5

Carries rubber washer to bolt
Positions rubber washer
Assembles rubber washer
Fundamental Hand
Motions
Search (Sh)

 Eye turned as if searching

 That part of the cycle during which the eyes or the
hands are hunting or groping for the object. Search
begins when the eyes or hands begin to hunt for the
object, and ends when the object has been found.
 Note: The original list of the Gilbreth motions
contained the therblig “find”. Because find occurs at
the end of the therblig “search”, and because it is a
mental reaction rather than a physical movement, it is
seldom used in micromotion analysis work.
Select (St)

 Reaching for object

 The choice of one object from among several. In many
case it is difficult if not impossible to determine where
the boundaries lie between search and select. For this
reason it is often the practice to combine them,
referring to both as the one therblig “select”
 Example: Locating a particular pencil in a box
containing pencils, pens, and miscellaneous articles.
Grasp (G)
 PRODUCTIVITY
MEASUREMENT AND
IMPROVEMENT
PRODUCTIVITY

 Measure of process improvement

 Productivity (P) = Units Produced (O) /
Input Used (I)
 Single Factor Productivity
 Multi-Factor Productivity
 Single Factor Productivity
 SFP = Units Produced / Labor or Machine or Capital
or Energy
Example:
At Modern Lumber.Inc., Art Binley, president and producer of
apple crates sold to growers, has been able, with his current
equipment to produce 240 crates per 100 logs. He currently
purchases 100 logs per day and each log requires 3 labor
hours to process .he believes that he can hire a professional
buyer who can buy a better quality log at the same cost. If
this is the case, he can increase his production to 260 crates
per 100 logs. His labor hours will increase by 8 hours per day.
What will be the impact on productivity ( measurement in
crates per labor hour) if the buyer is hired?
Case One : Current Labor Productivity ( when no buyer )
=Output / Input
Here Output = 240 crates
Input = Material required + labor hours
One log requires 3 labor hour. Therefore 100 logs require 300
labor hour.
Current Labor Productivity = 240 crates / ( 100 logs * 3 hours/
log ) = 240 / 300 = .8
Answer is : .8 crates per labor hour
 Case Two : 
 Labor Productivity  with buyer= Output / Input
 New Output = 260 crates
 Increase in labor hours = 8
 Labor Productivity = 260 crates / { ( 100 logs * 3
hours/ log ) + 8 hours }
 = 260 / 308
 = .844 crates per labor hour
 As a result, there is an increase in productivity from .8
to .844 crates per labor hour.
 Percentage increase in productivity = .844 / .8 =
1.055 =5.5 % increase .
 Multi-Factor Productivity
 MFP = Units Produced / Any combination of Input
Element
 Associated with cost
Example
Art Binley has decided to look at his productivity from a
multifactor (total factor productivity) perspective (refer to
previous Solved Problem 1.1). To do so, he has
determined his labor, capital, energy, and material usage
and decided to use dollars as the common denominator.
His total labor-hours are now 300 per day and will
increase to 308 per day. His capital and energy costs will
remain constant at $350 and $150 per day, respectively.
Material costs for the 100 logs per day are $1,000 and will
remain the same. Because he pays an average of $10 per
 CASE I
 Productivity with Current System = Output / Input
 Output with Current System = 240 crates
 Input = labor cost + material cost + capital + energy
 Given: Labor hours are 300 per day
 Cost of labor = 300 * 10 dollars ( as he pays 10 dollars
per hour )
 Material cost for 100 logs per day = $ 1000
 Capital = 350
 Energy =  150
 Therefore total input =  $4,500
 Hence , Multifactor productivity = 240 crates/4,500 = .
0533 crates/dollar
 CASE II
 Productivity with Professional Buyer = Output / Input
 Output = 260 crates
 Given: Labor hours are 308 per day
 Cost of labor = 308 * 10 dollars ( as he pays 10 dollars
per hour )
 Material cost, Capital and energy cost remain the same
 Therefore total input is  = 3080 + 1000+ 350 + 150 =
4580
 Hence , Multifactor productivity  with this new buyer =
260 crates/4,580 = .0568 crates/dollar
 Result :
 With the new system, we observe an increase in
productivity from  .0533 crates/dollar to  .0568
crates/dollar.
 The increase is ( .0568 – .0533  )/ .0533  = .066
 Therefore , the percentage increase in productivity is
=  6.6%
Seatwork

 The ABC Garments Factory produces 1,000

shirts per day with the following resources:
• Labor: 400 hours/day @ P50/hour
• Raw Materials: 2,000 kgs/day@P10 /kg
• Energy: P5,500/day
What is the multifactor productivity for these
shirts?
OPERATION ANALYSIS AND
PRINCIPLES OF MOTION
ECONOMY
METHODS STUDY: OPERATION
ANALYSIS AND PRINCIPLES OF
MOTION ECONOMY
PRINCIPLES OF MOTION ECONOMY
 Principles concerning the economy of movements
which have been developed from direct
experimentation and form a good basis for the
development of improved methods at the workplace
 Classified as three main types:
1. Use of human body
2. Arrangement of the workplace
3. Design of tools and equipment
 Objective: To maximize efficiency and minimize
worker fatigue.
Principles of Motion Economy as
Related to the Use of the Human
Body
1. THE TWO HANDS SHOULD BEGIN AS WELL AS
COMPLETE THEIR MOTIONS AT THE SAME TIME.
2. THE TWO HANDS SHOULD NOT BE IDLE AT THE
SAME TIME EXCEPT DURING REST PERIODS.
3. MOTIONS OF THE ARMS SHOULD BE MADE IN
OPPOSITE AND SYMMETRICAL DIRECTIONS AND
SHOULD BE MADE SIMULTANEOUSLY.
Example: improved method of the bolt and
washer assembly
4. HAND AND BODY MOTIONS SHOULD BE CONFINED
TO THE LOWEST CLASSIFICATION WITH WHICH IT IS
POSSIBLE TO PERFORM THE WORK SATISFACTORILY.
The five general classes of hand motions are listed here
because they emphasize that material and tools should be
located as close as possible to the point of use, and that
motions of the hands should be as short as the work
permits. The lowest classification, which is shown first,
usually requires the least amount of time and effort.
General Classification of Hand
Motions
 Finger Motions
 Motions involving fingers and wrist
 Motions involving fingers, wrist and forearm
 Motions involving fingers, wrist, forearm, and
upper arm
 Motions involving fingers, wrist, forearm,
upper arm, and shoulder.
5. MOMENTUM SHOULD BE EMPLOYED TO ASSIST
THE WORKER WHEREVER POSSIBLE, AND IT
SHOULD BE REDUCED TO A MINIMUM IF IT MUST
BE OVERCOME BY MUSCULAR EFFORT.
6. SMOOTH CONTINUOUS CURVED MOTIONS OF
THE HANDS ARE PREFERABLE TO STRAIGHT-LINE
MOTIONS INVOLVING SUDDEN AND SHARP
CHANGES IN DIRECTION.
7. BALLISTIC MOVEMENTS ARE FASTER, EASIER,
AND MORE ACCURATE THAN RESTRICTED
(FIXATION) OR “CONTROLLED” MOVEMENTS.
8. WORK SHOULD BE ARRANGED TO PERMIT AN
EASY AND NATURAL RHYTHM WHEREVER
POSSIBLE.
9. EYE FIXATIONS SHOULD BE AS FEW AND AS
CLOSE TOGETHER AS POSSIBLE.
Principles of Motion Economy as
Related to the Workplace
10. THERE SHOULD BE A DEFINITE AND FIXED
PLACE FOR ALL TOOLS AND MATERIALS.
11. TOOLS, MATERIALS, AND CONTROLS SHOULD
BE LOCATED CLOSE TO THE POINT OF USE.
12. GRAVITY FEED BINS AND CONTAINERS SHOULD
BE USED TO DELIVER MATERIAL CLOSE TO THE
POINT OF USE.
13. DROP DELIVERIES SHOULD BE USED
WHEREVER POSSIBLE.
14. MATERIALS AND TOOLS SHOULD BE LOCATED TO PERMIT
THE BEST SEQUENCE OF MOTIONS.
15. PROVISIONS SHOULD BE MADE FOR ADEQUATE
CONDITIONS FOR SEEING. GOOD ILLUMINATION IS THE FIRST
REQUIREMENT FOR SATISFACTORY VISUAL PERCEPTION.
16. THE HEIGHT OF THE WORKPLACE AND THE CHAIR
SHOULD PREFERABLY BE ARRANGED SO THAT ALTERNATE
SITTING AND STANDING AT WORK ARE EASILY POSSIBLE.
17. A CHAIR OF THE TYPE AND HEIGHT TO PERMIT GOOD
POSTURE SHOULD BE PROVIDED FOR EVERY WORKER.
Principles of Motion Economy as Related
to the Design of Tools and Equipment

18. THE HANDS SHOULD BE RELIEVED OF ALL

WORK THAT CAN BE DONE MORE ADVANTAGEOUS
BY A JIG, A FIXTURE, OR A FOOT-OPERATED
DEVICE.
19. TWO OR MORE TOOLS SHOULD BE COMBINED
WHENEVER POSSIBLE.
20. TOOLS AND MATERIALS SHOULD BE PRE-
POSITIONED WHENEVER POSSIBLE.
21. WHERE EACH FINGER PERFORMS SOME SPECIFIC
MOVEMENT, SUCH AS IN TYPEWRITING, THE LOAD
SHOULD BE DISTRIBUTED IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE
INHERENT CAPACITIES OF THE FINGERS.
22. LEVERS, HAND WHEELS, AND OTHER CONTROLS
SHOULD BE LOCATED IN SUCH POSITIONS THAT THE
OPERATOR CAN MANIPULATE THEM WITH THE LEAST
CHANGE IN BODY POSITION AND WITH THE GREATEST
SPEED AND EASE.
Work Measurement
DEFINITION :-

 “The application of techniques designed to

establish the time for a qualified worker to carry
out a specified job at a defined level of
performance”
OBJECTIVES OF WORK MEASUREMENT
 1. Comparing alternative methods
 2. Assessing the correct initial manning (manpower
requirement planning)
 3. Planning and control
 4. Realistic costing
 5. Delivery date of planning
 6. Cost reduction and cost control
 7. Identifying substandard workers
 8. Training new employees.
 WORK MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES
 For repetitive work (short work cycle) or non-repetitive work;

Time study (stop watch technique)

Work sampling
Synthetic data
Analytical estimating
Predetermined Motion Time Study
(PMTS)
Note - Time study & Work sampling involve direct observation5
while remaining are data-based & analytical in nature
TECHNIQUES OF WORK MEASUREMENT
:-
 1) Repetitive Work:- The type of work in which the main
operation or group of operations repeat continuously
during the time spent at the job. These apply to work cycle
of extremely short duration.
 2) Non-repetitive Work:- It include some type of
maintenance and construction work, where cycle itself is
hardly ever repeated identically.
 WORK MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES
Techniques Applications Unit of
measurement
s
Time study Short cycle repetitive jobs. Centi-minute
Widely used for direct (0.01 min)
work
Work sampling Long cycle jobs Minutes
Synthetic data Short cycle repetitive jobs Centi-minute
Analytical Short cycle non-repetitive jobs Minutes
estimating
MTM Manual operation confined TMU (166TMU =
to one work centre 0.006min)
 Time study

 Time study is work measurement technique used

to determine the time required by a
qualified and well-trained person working
at a normal pace to do a specified task.
 Time Study Equipment
 STOPWATCH – Most widely used timing device for
time study
Two types of stop watches:
1. Traditional decimal minute watch (0.01 min)
2. Electronic stopwatch (more practical)
 VIDEOTAPE CAMCORDERS – ideal for recording
operators’ methods and elapsed time; by taking
pictures of the operation and then studying them one
frame at a time, analysts can record exact details of
the method used and then assign normal time values
 TIME STUDY BOARD – a lightweight board, slightly
larger than the observation sheet, is used to hold the
paper and the stop watch. There are many different
arrangements, but it seems best to have the watch
mounted rigidly somewhere near the upper right-hand
corner of the board and observation sheets held in place
by some form of clamp at the side or top of the board.
 TIME STUDY FORMS – printed forms with spaces
provided for recording information about the operation
being studied. The operation being studied is identified
by such information as the operator’s name and
number, operation description and number, department
where the operation is performed, and prevailing
working conditions.
 TIME STUDY SOFTWARE – several software
packages are available for the time study
analyst. Some of these run on personal digital
assistants (PDAs), including QuickTimes by
Applied Computer Services, Inc.
What is an Element?

 Element is a component of a job or task that

are logical divisions with easily identifiable
starting and end points, and are repeated on a
regular basis.
What is a Cycle?

 Cycle is the completion of the activities

(elements) required to perform the job
under study.
 Types of element
 A repetitive element – Is an element which occurs in
every work cycle of the job.
 An occasional element - does not occur in each work
cycle of the job, but which may occur at regular or
irregular intervals. e.g. machine setting.
 A constant element - the basic time remains constant
whenever it is performed. e.g. switch the machine on.
 A variable element - is an element for which the basic
time varies in relation to some characteristics of the
product, equipment or process, e.g. dimensions, weight,
quality etc. e.g. push trolley of parts to next shop.
 Types of element
 manual element - is an element performed by a
worker.
 machine element - is automatically performed
by a power-driven machine (or process).
 governing element - occupies a longer time
than any of the other elements which are being
performed concurrently. e.g. boil kettle of water,
while setting out teapot and cups.
 foreign element - is observed during a study
which, after analysis, is not found to be necessary
part of the job. e.g. degreasing a part that has
still to be machined further.
 Timing the Elements

 Each element should be timed over several work

cycles to obtain a reliable average.
 STOP WATCH TIMING METHODS:
1. Snapback timing method – stopwatch is reset to
zero at the start of each work element.
2. Continuous timing method – stopwatch is allowed to
run continuously throughout the duration of the
work cycle.
 Time Study Algorithm
 Define the task to be studied and inform the worker
who will be studied.
 Divide the task into precise elements.
 Determine the number of cycles to observe.
 Time and record element times and rating
performance.
 Compute average observed time.
 Determine performance rating and normal time.
 Add the normal times for each element to develop
the total normal time for the task.
 Compute the standard time
 Calculating the Observed Time
 Average observed time = Sum of the times
recorded to perform for
each element / Number of
Observations
Example:
ELEMEN CYCLE OBSERVED (IN
T MINUTES)
1 2 3 4 5
A 7 8 7 6 9
B 4 3 5 3 6
C 10 8 8 9 8
 Calculating the Normal Time
 NORMAL TIME – is the observed time adjusted for
worker performance. It is computed by multiplying
the calculated observed time by a certain
performance rating, That is,
 NT = OT x PR
Where;
NT = normal time
OT = observed time
PR = performance rating (R/100%)
Performance Rating

 The performance rating (rating factor) is solely a judgment call made by

the analyst.
 Perfromance Ratings are established for each worker.
- PR = 1.0 denotes worker performed at normal pace
- PR < 1.0 denotes worker performed at a slower pace
- PR > 1.0 denotes worker performed at a faster pace
Determining the Rating Factor (R)

 RATING – is that process during which the

time study analyst compares the
performance (speed or tempo) of the
operator under observation with the
observer’s own concept of normal
performance.
 Systems of Rating
 1. Skill and Effort Rating (BEDAUX SYSTEM)
 Under this system, the study time engineer observes and
judges how fast the operator performs the motions
involved and also his skill. Hence it is called as “Skill and
Effort Rating”. This system was introduced by Charles E.
Bedaux in 1916.
 The author did not consider time as basis, but he
introduced ‘B’ values (the efficiency of each work element
is estimated in ‘B’ values). ‘B’ values represent a standard
minute which contains (i) work component, and (ii)
relaxation component. Only human effort is measured by
this system.
 Bedaux used 60 points equal to standard
performance. In other words, an operator
working at a normal pace was expected to
produce 60 Bs per hour, and it was expected
that the average incentive pace would be
around 70 to 85 points per hour.
 2. Westinghouse System of Rating
This system of rating developed at Westinghouse
is based on four factors.
These factors are:
• Skill
• Effort
• Conditions
• Consistency
 Each factor is then subdivided into super skill,
excellent, good, average, fair and poor. Each
sub-factors are attached with numeric values.
The average time obtained from time study is
normalised by applying the sum of the ratings
of the four factors.
 For Example, if the selected time or average
observed time for an operation was 0.50 minute
and if the ratings were as follows:
Excellent skill, B2 +0.08
Good effort, C2 +0.02
Good condition, C +0.02
Good consistency, C +0.01
Total +0.13
Note:
The algebraic sum indicates that the worker is 13
percent above the average. If the worker gets
negative algebraic sum , he is considered to be
below average.
 3. Synthetic Rating
 In this method, performance of the worker is
rated from the values already known by Pre-
determined Motion Time System (P.M.T.S.). In
this procedure, time study is done in the usual
manner and then actual time obtained for
certain elements from this study is compared
with that of known standards. A ratio is
established between these two values and
average ratio is calculated.
 Performance Rating Factor = PMTS value for the
element/Average actual time values for the
same element
 R = P/A
Where
R = Performance Rating Factor
P = Predetermined time for the element,
expressed in minutes
A = Average actual time value (average
observed time/selected time) for the same
element P expressed in minutes
 Comparison of Average Actual and Times
Determined from Predetermined Time Data
Time Study Average Actual Time as Calculated Average
Element Time Determined Performance Performance
(Observed from Rating Factor Rating Factor
Time) in Predetermined R = P/A
Minutes Time data in
Minutes
1 0.12 0.13 108% 110
2 0.09 110
3 0.17 0.19 112% 110
4 0.26 110
5 0.32 110
6 0.07 110
 4. Objective Rating
 Under this system, rating is done in two stages.
In first stage, operator’s speed is rated without
considering any difficulty in making the job.
 In the second stage, an adjustment factor is to
be applied to compensate the operators
difficulty. Job difficulties are divided into six
classes.
Six Classes of Job Difficulties
I. Amount of Body Used
II. Foot Pedals
III.Bimanualness
IV.Eye-hand Coordination
V. Handling requirements
VI.Weight
 The following example illustrates how the
normal time for an element is determined
using this system of rating.
 For example if the selected time for an
element is 0.30 minute, the pace rating is
1.10 percent and if the sum of all secondary
adjustments amount to 20 percent then the
normal time will be calculated as follows
 Normal time = Average time x Pace rating x
Difficulty adjustment
 = 0.30 x 1.10 x 1.20
 = 0.396 minute.
 5. Physiological Evaluation of Performance Level
 Under this method, the performance level of the worker is
estimated physiologically. Many studies have revealed
that there is relationship between physical work and
amount of oxygen consumed by the operator. There is
change in heart beating rate depending on the physical
work and it is assumed that it is a reliable index to
measure muscular activity.
 Thus the oxygen consumed and the heart beat rate
depend on the severity of physical labour. Thus
performance level of a worker can be estimated using
this correlation because heart beat rate and oxygen
consumption increase when the worker is at working
level. When work ends, recovery begins and the heart
rate and oxygen consumption return to normal resting
level
 6. Speed Rating
 In speed rating, the speed of the movements of a
worker is the only factor to be considered. The
time study engineer observes the speed of the
movements of the worker against a standard
expected pace or speed and notes the
relationship between them as the rating factor.
Rating factor can be applied to different elements.
 Rating Factor = Workers speed/Speed expected
from the worker
 Standard Time

 Amount of time required to complete a unit of

work
 The normal time does not take into account
such factors as personnel delays (getting a
drink of water or going to the restroom),
unavoidable delays (machine adjustments and
repairs, talking to a supervisor, waiting for
materials) or rest breaks.
 ST = NT X ( 1 + Allowance )
Where
ST = Standard Time
NT = Normal Time
 PFD ALLOWANCES
PERSONAL TIME - rest room breaks, phone calls,
water fountain stops, cigarette breaks (5% typical)
FATIGUE – rest allowance to overcome fatigue due
to work – related stresses and conditions (5% or
more)
DELAYS – machine breakdowns, foreman
instructions (5%typical)
 Example:
 From the data below, Compute for the standard time if the allowance
factor = 15%

CYCLE OBSERVED (IN MINUTES)

JOB ELEMENT 1 2 3 4 5 Performance
Rating
Compose and type 8 10 9 21 11 120%
letter
Type envelope address 2 3 2 1 3 105%
Stuff, stamp, seal and 2 1 5 2 1 110%
sort envelopes
Number of Cycles Determination
 Suppose we want to know the number of cycles we
must observe in order to obtain an average cycle
time that is 95% certain to fall within +/- 5% of the
actual average cycle time for all workers performing
this job or task within a job.
- How accurate we want to be
- The desired confidence level
- How much variation exists within the job elements
  
 To determine sample size:

Where:
Z= number of standard deviations from the mean in a
normal distribution reflecting a level of statistical
confidence

= sample standard deviation from sample time study

a = accuracy level desired

  
Alternative formula:

Where
e = maximum acceptable error
 Common z - values
Desired Confidence z Value (standard
(%) deviation required
for desired level of
confidence)
90.0 1.645
95.0 1.96
95.45 2.00
98 2.33
99.0 2.575
99.73 3.00
 Example:
1. How many observations will be required in
your time study to achieve the following?
Desired Confidence = 99%
The desired accuracy within 2% of the mean
observed times
The sample observation mean = 45
The sample standard deviation = 1.8
2. Alvin Manufacturing has just observed a job in its laboratory in anticipation
of releasing the job in the factory for production. The firm wants rather good
accuracy for costing and labor testing. Specifically, it wants to provide a 99%
confidence level and a cycle time that is within 3% of the true value. The data
collected so far are as follows:

OBSERVATION TIME (MIN)

1 1.7
2 1.6
3 1.4
4 1.8
5 1.5

How many observations should be taken?

 PERFORMANCE RATING
Process of adjusting the actual pace of
working of an operator by comparing it with
mental picture of pace of an operator working
at normal speed

Performance rating methods

Speed rating
Westing house method of rating (S,E,C,C)
Synthetic rating (R = P/A) 73
Objective rating
allowances

 Relaxation allowances
 Variable allowances
 Interference allowances
 Contingency allowances
 Policy allowances
ALLOWANCES

74
STANDARD TIME
COMPUTATION

75
EXAMPLE on how to calculate standard time:
 WORK MEASUREMENT

• STANDARD TIME IS USED IN:

• COSTING THE LABOR COMPONENT OF
PRODUCTS
• TRACKING EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE
• SCHEDULING & PLANNING REQUIRED
RESOURCES
 SETTING STANDARD TIMES
• STEP 1: CHOOSE THE SPECIFIC JOB TO BE STUDIED
• STEP 2: TELL THE WORKER WHOSE JOB YOU WILL BE
STUDYING
• STEP 3: BREAK THE JOB INTO EASILY RECOGNIZABLE
UNITS
• STEP 4: CALCULATE THE NUMBER OF CYCLES YOU
MUST OBSERVE
• STEP 5: TIME EACH ELEMENT, RECORD DATA & RATE
THE
WORKER’S PERFORMANCE
• STEP 6: COMPUTE THE NORMAL TIME
Example :-
WORK SAMPLING:-

Work sampling was originally developed by L.H.C. Tippett in Britain in 1934 for
the British Cotton Industry Research Board.
DEFINATION:-
A technique in which a statistically competent number of instantaneous
observations are taken, over a period time, of a group of
machines,processes or workers.
Work Sampling has three main applications:-
1) Activity and delay Sampling:- To measure the activities and delays of
workers and machines.
2) Performance Sampling:- To measure working time and non working time
of a person on a manual work and to establish a performance index or
performance level for a person during his working time.
3) Work Measurement:- Under certain circumstances, to measure manual
task that is to established a time standard for an operation.
What is job design

Job design – process by which managers decide

individual job tasks and authority

Job redesign – process by which managers reconsider

what employees are expected to do

The well-being of organizations and people relates to

how well management designs jobs
 Definition of job design

Def: Job Design is the process of deciding on the content of a

job in terms of its duties and responsibilities; on the methods
to be used in carrying out the job, in terms of techniques,
systems and procedures and on the relationships that should
exist between the job holder and the superiors, subordinates
and colleagues.
 Goals of Job design

1. Major Concern
2. Purpose of Job Design
3. Affect on Employee
4. Impact
Design factor

 Layout of equipment and seating

 Instrument display design
 Compatibility
 Control design characteristics
Environmental factors

 Temperature and hummidity

 Vibration
 noise
Visual Environment

 Lighting
 Ventilation
 Behavioural dimensions of job design
 Job rotation
 Job enlargement
 Job enrichment
Job Rotation: Job Enlargement
:Job Enrichment:

 Job Rotation: Refers to the movement of an employee from one Job to

another.

 Please note: Jobs themselves are not actually Changed, only employees
are Rotated among various jobs.

 Job Enlargement: When a job is enlarged the tasks being performed are
either enlarged or several short tasks are given to on worker, thus the
scope of the Job is increased because there are many tasks to be
performed by the same worker.

 Job Enrichment::Job enrichment as is currently practiced all over the

work is a direct outgrowth of Herzberg’s Two factor theory of motivation.
Approaches to Job Design

 Engineering Approach:
 Human Approach:
 Job Characteristics Approach:
Engineering Approach:

 The work of every workman is fully planned out by

the management at least on day in advance and
each man receives in most cases complete written
instructions, describing in detail the task which
he/she has to accomplish-FW TAYLOR.
 Problem with this approach: Repetition-Mechanical
pacing-no end product-little socal interaction-no
input
 Human Approach:
 The Human relations approach recognized the need to design jobs which are
interesting and rewarding.
 Herzberg’s research popularized the notion of enhancing need satisfaction through
what is called job enrichment.
 Factors involved:
 Motivators like achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement
and growth and Hygienic factors.
 According to Herzberg. The Employee is dissatisfied with the job if required
maintenance factors to the required degree are not introduced into the job.
 Job Characteristics Approach

 Theory by Hackman and Oldham states that employees will work hard when
they are rewarded for the work they do and when the work gives them
satisfaction.
 Hence integration of motivation, satisfaction and performance with job design.
 According to this approach Job can be described in terms of five core job
dimensions:
1. Skill Variety
2. Task Identity
3. Task significance
4. Autonomy
5. Feedback
Job Design Process:

 Job Design Process has to start from what activity

needs to be done in order to achieve organizational
goals.
 It requires use of techniques like work-study, process
planning, organizational methods and organizational
analysis and also technical aspects