INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC SCIENCE AND

ANALYSIS
BBT 3210

Lecture 1: Introduction
• History and scope of forensics
• Services offered by crime labs
 Introduction
What is Forensic Science?
• …the application of science to those criminal and civil laws that are
enforced by police agencies in a criminal justice system.
Forensic Science is…
• Applied Science
• Often called “criminalistics”
 Forensic Science applies

}
• Chemistry

• Biology
to civil and criminal law
• Physics

• Geology

Places physical evidence into a professional discipline.

 Sir Arthur Conan Doyle

• Popularized physical detection

methods in a crime scene
• Developed the character Sherlock
Holmes
 Mathieu Orfila (1787 – 1853)

• Father of Forensic Toxicology

• 1814 - Treatise on detection of poisons
& their effects on animals & this
established forensic toxicology as
legitimate scientific endeavour.
 Alphonse Bertillon (1853 – 1914)

• Father of Criminal Detection

• Devised the first scientific system of
personal identification, using body
measurements known as
anthropometry in 1879.
 Francis Galton (1822 – 1911)

• Conducted the first definitive study of

fingerprints and their classification.

• 1892 – Treatise entitled Finger Prints

 Karl Landsteiner

• Landsteiner discovered blood

groups; A, B, AB, O
 Leone Lattes (1887 – 1954)

• Devised a simple procedure for determining the blood type

(A,B,O,AB) of a dried bloodstain
 Calvin Goddard (1891 – 1955)

• Used a comparison microscope to determine if a

bullet was fired from a specific gun
• Published study of “tool marks” on bullets
 Albert S. Osborn (1858 – 1946)

• Developed fundamental principles of document examination

• 1910 – Treatise Questioned Documents
• Was responsible for the acceptance of documents as scientific
evidence by the courts
 Hans Gross

• First treatise describing application of

scientific disciplines and scientific
method to field of criminal investigation
• Produced a classic book called Criminal
Investigation.
 Edmond Locard (1877 – 1966)
• Demonstrated how the principles developed by
Hans Gross could be incorporated into a workable
crime lab.
• Locard's exchange principle states that once contact
is made between two surfaces a transfer of
material(s) will occur.
• He believed that when a criminal came in contact
with an object, a cross-transfer of evidence occurred
- Locard’s exchange principle.
 History and development of Forensic Science
• 1932 first national crime lab developed in USA
with the FBI by J. Edgar Hoover for all law enforcement agencies.
• World’s largest forensic laboratory & performs over a million
examinations every year.
• 1981 FBI’s Forensic Science Research & Training Centre
– 1st time facility conduct research to develop new & reliable
scientific methods applied to forensic science.
 Crime Lab Units

Standard Optional
Physical Science Toxicology
Biology Fingerprints
Firearms Polygraph
Documents Voice Print
Photography Evidence
 Basic Services Provided by
Full-Service Crime Laboratories
• Physical Science Unit:
• Applies the principles and techniques of
Chemistry
Physics
Geology
to the identification and comparison of crime-scene evidence
• Biology Unit:
• Identifies dried bloodstains and body fluids
• Compares hairs and fibers
• Identifes and compares botanical materials such as wood and plants
• Performs DNA analysis
 Basic Services (continued)
• Firearms Unit: examines
• Firearms
• Discharged bullets
• Cartridge cases
• Shotgun shells
• Ammunition of all types

• Document Examination Unit:

• Analyzes handwriting, paper and printers of documents

• Photography Unit:
• Examines and records physical evidence at the crime scene and at suspects' locations
Services offered by crime
labs

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Optional Services Provided by Full-Service Crime
Labs
• Toxicology Unit:
• Examines body fluids and organs in order to determine the
presence and identification of drugs and poisons

• Latent Fingerprint Unit:

• Processes and examines evidence for latent fingerprints
• i.e. those found on surfaces

• Polygraph Unit:
• Uses lie detectors, an essential tool of the crime investigator rather
than the forensic scientist
 Optional Services (continued)
• Voiceprint Analysis Unit:
• Involved in cases of telephone threats or tape-recorded messages
• Investigators may be able to connect a voice to a particular suspect

• Evidence-Collection Unit:
• Incorporates evidence collection into a total forensic science service
 The Functions of the Forensic Scientist

• Analysis of Physical Evidence

• The forensic scientist must be skilled in applying the principles
and techniques of the physical and natural sciences in order to
identify the many types of evidence that may be recovered during
crime investigations.
• Expert witness
• An expert witness possesses a particular skill or has knowledge in
a trade or profession that will aid the court in determining the
truth.
 The Functions of the Forensic Scientist
(continued)

Specially trained evidence collection

technicians
Training in Proper Recognition, Collection,
and Preservation of Evidence is required so
that the forensic pathologist, as the medical
examiner or coroner, can determine the cause
of death via an autopsy.
 Other Forensic Services
Death can be classified into five different categories:
natural death, homicide, suicide, accident or
undetermined manner of death.
• Forensic Pathology
• The cause of death can often be determined by
performing an autopsy
 Other Forensic Services - 2
• Forensic Pathology – continued
• After a human body expires there are several stages of death
• Rigor Mortis
• immediately following death, the muscles relax and then become rigid,
shortening of the muscles.
• Livor Mortis
• when the human heart stops pumping, due to the blood begins to settle in the
parts of the body closest to the ground due to gravity. The skin will appear
dark blue or purple in these lower areas close to the ground.
• Algor Mortis
• the process in which the body temperature continually cools after death until
it reaches room temperature, enabling the medical examiner to establish the
general time of death.
Cont.

• Time of death also determined by examining potassium levels in ocular

fluid.
• The rate at which potassium is released into the vitreous humor maybe
used.
• Also examining stomach can help note what the victims last meal was.
 Other Forensic Services - 3

• Forensic Anthropology:
• Primarily involves the identification and examination of
skeletal remains, in order to determine if the remains are
human or another type of animal.
• If human, ethnicity, sex, approximate age, and manner of
death can often be determined by an anthropologist.
 Other Forensic Services - 4
• Forensic Entomology
• The study of insects and their developmental stages
• Can help to determine the time of death by knowing when those stages
normally appear in the insect's life cycle
• Blow flies first arrive when body starts to decompose; eggs are laid, and
maggots or fly
larvae.
• Larvae consume tissue & organs.
 Other Forensic Services - 5

• Forensic Psychiatry
• The study of human behavior and legal proceedings in both civil and
criminal cases
• In civil and criminal cases, competency often needs to be determined
• In criminal trials, the evaluation of behavior disorders is often required
in order to establish the psychological profile of a suspect.
 Other Forensic Services - 6

• Forensic Odontology
• An odontologist can match bite marks to a suspect's teeth, or
match a victim to his dental x-rays
• Results in an identification of an unknown individual
• Forensic Engineering
• Used to analyze construction accidents, and the causes and
origins of fires or explosions
 Forensic Analysis

• Can include organic and inorganic analytical techniques

• Organic analysis of unknown substances
• Includes analytical techniques such as Chromatography,
UV- visible and infrared Spectrophotometry and Mass
Spectrometry.
• Inorganic analysis
• Includes techniques such as the emission spectrum of
elements, Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry, Neutron
Activation Analysis, and X-Ray Diffraction Analysis.
END OF LECTURE
 INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC SCIENCE AND
ANALYSIS
BBT 3210

Lecture 2: The Crime Scene

• Gathering good quality evidence
• Autopsies
• Physical evidence
• Collection and storage of evidence
 Crime Scene

• Crime scene is a location where

an illegal act occurred, and
comprises the area from which
most of the physical evidence is
retrieved by trained law
enforcement personal, crime
scene investigators and rare
circumstances, forensics
scientists.
 Crime Scene

A crime scene investigation consists of

recognizing, documenting, and collecting
evidence from the crime scene.

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 Crime Scene

• The lead investigator evaluates the scene

& determines the boundaries.
• They do an initial walk through &develop
a strategy.
• All items must be documented &
photographed.

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 Crime Scene

Seven S’s of Crime Scene Investigation:

1. Secure the scene

2. Separate the witnesses
3. Scan the scene
4. See the scene
5. Sketch the scene
6. Search for evidence
7. Secure and collect evidence
 Securing the Crime Scene

Securing the Crime Scene

• Secure and Isolate the crime scene.
• First priority is medical assistance to individuals & arresting the
perpetrator.
• Ropes , barricades and guards will prevent unauthorized access to the
area.
• Every person who enters the crime scene has the potential to destroy
physical evidence.
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 Not to scale
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 Separating the Witnesses

• Witnesses must not be allowed to talk to one another. This

prevents them from working together to create a story
(collusion).

• When evaluating eye witness testimony, the investigator

must discriminate between fact and opinion. What did
the witness actually see?
 Scan the Scene

• Forensic examiners scan the scene to see

where photos should be taken. The primary
and secondary crime scenes must be
determined.

• The primary crime scene is where a crime

actually occurred.
• A secondary crime scene is in some way
related to the crime but is not where the actual
crime took place.
 See the Scene

A crime scene examiner looks at the scene. The Photography Unit takes
photos of the overall area and close up photos with and without a
measuring ruler.
 See the Scene

• If crime scene includes a body, take photos to show body’s location and
position relative to the whole crime scene.
• Take close-up photos of injuries & weapons lying near the body.
• After the body is removed, photograph the surface underneath.

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 Sketching the Scene

• North should be labeled and a scale of distance should be included

• All important objects (weapon and body) should be measured from two
immovable landmarks
• Any other objects in the vicinity of the crime should be included in the
sketch (ex. Doors, windows, furniture, trees, vehicles, etc.)
• Also include: Date, time, location, case number, and names (Sketched by
and Verified by)
46 Not to scale
 Search for Evidence

Physical Evidence
• Physical evidence is any object that can establish that a
crime has been committed or can link a crime and its
victim or its perpetrator.
• The investigator must recognize physical evidence and
properly preserve it for laboratory examination.
• The evidence must be kept in its original condition as
much as possible.
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 Search for Evidence
Spiral: Grid:
Systematic Search    

Linear: Quadrant or Zone:

 

 
 Securing and Collecting the Evidence

• All evidence must be properly packaged, sealed and labeled using

specific techniques and procedures.
• Packaging Evidence
• Metal or plastic forceps may have to be used to pick up small items.
• Plastic pill bottles with lids are preferred containers for hairs, glass,
fibers, and other kinds of trace evidence.
• Liquids and arson remains are stored in airtight, unbreakable
containers.
Securing and Collecting the Evidence
 Securing and Collecting the Evidence
Evidence Log

• Each person who comes in

contact with a piece of evidence
must use proper procedure and
protocol in order to maintain
responsible handling of evidence
from crime scene to courtroom in
order for the evidence to be
admissible in court.
 Securing and Collecting the Evidence

Chain of Custody
• Chain of custody is a list of all people who
came into possession of an item of evidence.
• Chain must be established whenever evidence
is presented in court as an exhibit.
• Failure to do so may lead to ? Regarding
authenticity and integrity of evidence.

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 Securing and Collecting the Evidence

• Control Samples:
• Control samples should also be taken from the victim for
purposes of exclusion (blood, hair, etc.)

• Standard/Reference Sample- Physical evidence whose

origin is known, such as blood or hair from a suspect,
that can be compared to crime-scene evidence.
 What is an autopsy?

• An autopsy is an exam of the body after a person has died.

• The purpose of an autopsy is to answer any questions about the
person's illness or the cause of death.
• In addition, autopsies provide valuable information that helps doctors
save the lives of others.
 Who can request an autopsy?

• You can request an autopsy if you're the next of kin or legally

responsible for the dead person.
• Your doctor will ask you to sign a consent form to give
permission for the autopsy.
• You may limit the autopsy in any manner you wish.
• If the cause of death is unclear, the coroner may perform an
autopsy without the family's permission.
What is the procedure for an autopsy?

• A specially trained doctor, called a pathologist, performs

the autopsy.
• First, the pathologist looks at the body for clues about the
cause of death.
• Next, the pathologist examines the internal organs, taking
samples as needed to look at under a microscope.
• The autopsy takes from two to four hours in a room that
looks like an operating room.
• An atmosphere of dignity and respect is maintained at all
times.
When will the results of an autopsy be known?

• The first findings from an autopsy are usually ready in two to

three days.
• A final report may take many weeks because of the detailed
studies performed on tissue samples.
• Your doctor can review these results with the next of kin or legal
guardian.
END OF LECTURE