Chapter 5

Series dc Circuits

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OBJECTIVES
• Become familiar with the characteristics of
a series circuit and how to solve for the
voltage, current, and power to each of the
elements.
• Develop a clear understanding of
Kirchhoff’s voltage law and how important it
is to the analysis of electric circuits.
• Become aware of how an applied voltage
will divide among series components and
how to properly apply the voltage divider
rule.
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OBJECTIVES

• Understand the use of single- and

doublesubscript notation to define the
voltage levels of a network.
• Learn how to use a voltmeter,
ammeter, and ohmmeter to measure
the important quantities of a network.

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INTRODUCTION

• Two types of current are readily

available to the consumer today.
– One is direct current (dc), in which
ideally the flow of charge (current) does
not change in magnitude (or direction)
with time.
– The other is sinusoidal alternating
current (ac), in which the flow of charge
is continually changing in magnitude
(and direction) with time.

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INTRODUCTION

FIG. 5.1 Introducing the basic components of an electric

circuit.

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INTRODUCTION

FIG. 5.2 Defining the direction of FIG. 5.3 Defining the polarity resulting
conventional flow for single-source dc from a conventional current I through a
circuits. resistive element.

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SERIES RESISTORS
• Before the series
connection is
described, first
recognize that every
fixed resistor has only
two terminals to
connect in a
configuration—it is FIG. 5.4 Series connection of
resistors.
therefore referred to
as a two-terminal
device. RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 ….+ RN

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SERIES RESISTORS

FIG. 5.5 Configuration in which none of the resistors are in

series.

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SERIES RESISTORS

FIG. 5.6 Series connection of resistors for

Example 5.1. FIG. 5.7 Series connection of four
resistors of the same value (Example 5.2).

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SERIES RESISTORS

FIG. 5.8 Two series combinations of the same elements with the same total resistance.

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SERIES RESISTORS

FIG. 5.9 Series combination of resistors for FIG. 5.10 Series circuit of Fig. 5.9
Example 5.3. redrawn to permit the use of Eq. (5.2): RT
= NR.

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SERIES RESISTORS
Instrumentation

• The total resistance of any

configuration can be measured by
simply connecting an ohmmeter
across the access terminals.
• Since there is no polarity associated
with resistance, either lead can be
connected to point a, with the other
lead connected to point b.

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SERIES RESISTORS
Instrumentation

FIG. 5.11 Using an ohmmeter to measure the total resistance of a series

circuit.

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SERIES CIRCUITS

• If we now take an 8.4 V dc supply and

connect it in series with the series resistors
in Fig. 5.4, we have the series circuit in
Fig. 5.12.

E
Is=
RT

FIG. 5.12 Schematic representation for a dc series circuit.

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SERIES CIRCUITS

FIG. 5.13 Resistance “seen” at the terminals of a series circuit.

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SERIES CIRCUITS

FIG. 5.14 Inserting the polarities across a resistor as determined by the direction
of the current.

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SERIES CIRCUITS

FIG. 5.15 Series circuit to be investigated FIG. 5.16 Series circuit to be analyzed
in Example 5.4. in Example 5.5.

V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2, V3 = IR3, … VN = IRN

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SERIES CIRCUITS

FIG. 5.17 Circuit in Fig. 5.16 redrawn to permit the use of Eq. (5.2).

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SERIES CIRCUITS

FIG. 5.18 Series circuit to be analyzed in Example 5.6.

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SERIES CIRCUITS
Instrumentation

FIG. 5.19 Using voltmeters to measure the voltages across the

resistors in Fig. 5.12.

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SERIES CIRCUITS
Instrumentation

• In general, when using a voltmeter,

start with a scale that will ensure
that the reading is less than the
maximum value of the scale. Then
work your way down in scales until
the reading with the highest level
of precision is obtained.

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SERIES CIRCUITS
Instrumentation

• Turning our attention to the current of

the circuit, we find that using an
ammeter to measure the current of
a circuit requires that the circuit be
broken at some point and the
meter inserted in series with the
branch in which the current is to
be determined.

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SERIES CIRCUITS
Instrumentation

FIG. 5.20 Measuring the current throughout the series circuit

in Fig. 5.12.

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POWER DISTRIBUTION IN A SERIES
CIRCUIT
• In any electrical system, the power
applied will equal the power
dissipated or absorbed.
• For any series circuit, such as that in
Fig. 5.21, the power applied by the
dc supply must equal that
dissipated by the resistive
elements.

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POWER DISTRIBUTION IN A SERIES
CIRCUIT

FIG. 5.21 Power distribution in a series circuit.

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POWER DISTRIBUTION IN A SERIES
CIRCUIT
Pdel = P1 + P2 + P3 + …+ PN

FIG. 5.22 Series circuit to be investigated in Example 5.7.

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VOLTAGE SOURCES IN SERIES

• Voltage sources can be connected in

series, to increase or decrease the
total voltage applied to a system.
• The net voltage is determined by
summing the sources with the same
polarity and subtracting the total of
the sources with the opposite polarity.
• The net polarity is the polarity of the
larger sum.

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VOLTAGE SOURCES IN SERIES

FIG. 5.23 Reducing series dc voltage sources to a single source.

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KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW

• The law, called Kirchhoff’s voltage

law (KVL), was developed by Gustav
Kirchhoff in the mid-1800s.
• It is a cornerstone of the entire field
and, in fact, will never be outdated or
replaced.

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KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW

FIG. 5.26 Applying Kirchhoff ’s voltage law

to a series dc circuit.

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KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW

• The law specifies that the algebraic sum

of the potential rises and drops around
a closed path (or closed loop) is zero.

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KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW

FIG. 5.27 Series circuit to be examined

FIG. 5.28 Series dc circuit to be
in Example 5.8.
analyzed in Example 5.9.

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KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW

FIG. 5.29 Combination of

voltage sources to be examined
in Example 5.10.

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KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW

FIG. 5.31 Applying Kirchhoff ’s voltage

FIG. 5.30 Series configuration to be law to a circuit in which the polarities have
examined in Example 5.11. not been provided for one of the voltages
(Example 5.12).

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KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW

FIG. 5.32 Series configuration to be

examined in Example 5.13.

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VOLTAGE DIVISION IN A SERIES
CIRCUIT
• The previous section demonstrated that the
sum of the voltages across the resistors of
a series circuit will always equal the
applied voltage.
• It cannot be more or less than that value.
• The next question is, how will a resistor’s
value affect the voltage across the
resistor?
– It turns out that the voltage across series
resistive elements will divide as the
magnitude of the resistance levels.

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VOLTAGE DIVISION IN A SERIES
CIRCUIT
• In other words, in a series resistive
circuit, the larger the resistance,
the more of the applied voltage it
will capture.
• In addition, the ratio of the voltages
across series resistors will be the
same as the ratio of their
resistance levels.

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VOLTAGE DIVISION IN A SERIES
CIRCUIT

RxE
Vx =
RT
FIG. 5.33 Revealing how the voltage will divide
across series resistive elements.

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VOLTAGE DIVISION IN A SERIES
CIRCUIT

FIG. 5.35 The largest of the series

FIG. 5.34 The ratio of the resistive resistive elements will capture the major
values determines the voltage division of share of the applied voltage.
a series dc circuit.

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VOLTAGE DIVISION IN A SERIES CIRCUIT
Voltage Divider Rule (VDR)

• The voltage divider

rule (VDR) permits the
determination of the
voltage across a
series resistor without
first having to
determine the current
of the circuit.
• The rule itself can be
derived by analyzing
the simple series
circuit in Fig. 5.36.
FIG. 5.36 Developing the voltage
divider rule.

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VOLTAGE DIVISION IN A SERIES CIRCUIT
Voltage Divider Rule (VDR)

• The voltage divider rule states that

the voltage across a resistor in a
series circuit is equal to the value
of that resistor times the total
applied voltage divided by the total
resistance of the series
configuration.

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VOLTAGE DIVISION IN A SERIES CIRCUIT
Voltage Divider Rule (VDR)

FIG. 5.37 Series circuit to be examined

using the voltage divider rule in
Example 5.15. FIG. 5.38 Series circuit to be
investigated in Examples 5.16 and
5.17.

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VOLTAGE DIVISION IN A SERIES CIRCUIT
Voltage Divider Rule (VDR)

FIG. 5.40 Designing a voltage

divider circuit (Example 5.19).

FIG. 5.39 Voltage divider action for

Example 5.18.

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INTERCHANGING SERIES
ELEMENTS
• The elements of a
series circuit can
be interchanged
without affecting
the total
resistance, current,
or power to each
element. FIG. 5.41 Series dc circuit with elements
to be interchanged.

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INTERCHANGING SERIES
ELEMENTS

FIG. 5.42 Circuit in Fig. 5.41 with R2 and

R3 interchanged.

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INTERCHANGING SERIES
ELEMENTS

FIG. 5.43 Example 5.20.

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INTERCHANGING SERIES
ELEMENTS

FIG. 5.44 Redrawing the circuit in Fig.

5.43.

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NOTATION
Voltage Sources and Ground
• Except for a few
special cases,
electrical and
electronic systems are
grounded for
reference and safety
purposes.
FIG. 5.45 Ground
• The symbol for the potential.
ground connection
appears in Fig. 5.45
with its defined
potential level—zero
volts.

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NOTATION
Voltage Sources and Ground

FIG. 5.46 Three ways to sketch the same series dc circuit.

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NOTATION
Voltage Sources and Ground

FIG. 5.48 Replacing the notation for a

negative dc supply with the standard
notation.
FIG. 5.47 Replacing the special notation
for a dc voltage source with the standard
symbol.

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NOTATION
Voltage Sources and Ground

FIG. 5.49 The expected voltage

level at a particular point in a
network if the system is functioning
properly.

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NOTATION
Double-Subscript Notation

• The fact that voltage is an across variable

and exists between two points has resulted
in a double-subscript notation that defines
the first subscript as the higher potential.

FIG. 5.50 Defining the sign for double-subscript notation.

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NOTATION
Double-Subscript Notation

• The double-subscript notation Vab

specifies point a as the higher
potential.
• If this is not the case, a negative
sign must be associated with the
magnitude of Vab.
• In other words, the voltage Vab is the
voltage at point a with respect to
(w.r.t.) point b.
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NOTATION
Single-Subscript Notation

• If point b of the notation Vab is specified as

ground potential (zero volts), then a single-
subscript notation can be used that
provides the voltage at a point with respect
to ground.

FIG. 5.51 Defining the

use of single-subscript
notation for voltage levels.

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NOTATION
General Comments
• A particularly useful relationship can now be
established that has extensive applications in the
analysis of electronic circuits.
• For the above notational standards, the following
relationship exists:

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NOTATION
General Comments

FIG. 5.52 Example 5.21. FIG. 5.53 Example 5.22.

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NOTATION
General Comments

FIG. 5.55 The impact of positive and

negative voltages on the total voltage drop.
FIG. 5.54 Example 5.23.

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NOTATION
General Comments

FIG. 5.57 Determining Vb using the

FIG. 5.56 Example 5.24. defined voltage levels.

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NOTATION
General Comments

FIG. 5.58 Review of the potential levels for the

circuit in Fig. 5.56.

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NOTATION
General Comments

FIG. 5.59 Example FIG. 5.60 Determining the total

5.25. voltage drop across the resistive
elements in Fig 5.59.

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NOTATION
General Comments

FIG. 5.61 Redrawing the circuit FIG. 5.62 Example

in Fig. 5.59 using standard dc 5.26.
voltage supply symbols.

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NOTATION
General Comments

FIG. 5.64 Example 5.27.

FIG. 5.63 Circuit of Fig. 5.62
redrawn.

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VOLTAGE REGULATION AND THE
INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF
VOLTAGE SOURCES
• When you use a dc supply such as the
generator, battery, or supply in Fig. 5.65,
you initially assume that it will provide the
desired voltage for any resistive load you
may hook up to the supply.

FIG. 5.65 (a) Sources of dc voltage; (b) equivalent

circuit.

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VOLTAGE REGULATION AND THE
INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF
VOLTAGE SOURCES

FIG. 5.66 Demonstrating the effect of changing a load on the terminal voltage of
a supply.

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VOLTAGE REGULATION AND THE
INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF
VOLTAGE SOURCES

FIG. 5.67 Plotting VL versus IL for the supply in Fig.

5.66.

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VOLTAGE REGULATION AND THE
INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF
VOLTAGE SOURCES

FIG. 5.68 Defining the properties of importance for a power

supply.

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VOLTAGE REGULATION AND THE
INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF
VOLTAGE SOURCES

FIG. 5.69 Ideal supply and its terminal

characteristics.

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VOLTAGE REGULATION AND THE
INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF
VOLTAGE SOURCES
• To help us anticipate the expected response of a
supply, a defining quantity called voltage
regulation (abbreviated VR; often called load
regulation on specification sheets) was
established.
• The basic equation in terms of the quantities in
Fig. 5.68(a) is the following:

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VOLTAGE REGULATION AND THE
INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF
VOLTAGE SOURCES

FIG. 5.70 Terminal characteristics for the supply of Example 5.28.

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VOLTAGE REGULATION AND THE
INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF
VOLTAGE SOURCES

FIG. 5.71 dc supply with the terminal

characteristics of Fig. 5.70.

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VOLTAGE REGULATION AND THE
INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF
VOLTAGE SOURCES

FIG. 5.72 Characteristics and equivalent circuit for the supply of Example
5.29.

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LOADING EFFECTS OF
INSTRUMENTS
• In the previous section, we learned that
power supplies are not the ideal
instruments we may have thought they
were.
• The applied load can have an effect on the
terminal voltage.
• Fortunately, since today’s supplies have
such small load regulation factors, the
change in terminal voltage with load can
usually be ignored for most applications.

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LOADING EFFECTS OF
INSTRUMENTS
• If we now turn our attention to the various
meters we use in the lab, we again find that
they are not totally ideal:
– Whenever you apply a meter to a circuit,
you change the circuit and the response of
the system. Fortunately, however, for most
applications, considering the meters to be
ideal is a valid approximation as long as
certain factors are considered.

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LOADING EFFECTS OF
INSTRUMENTS
• For instance, any ammeter connected in
a series circuit will introduce resistance
to the series combination that will affect
the current and voltages of the
configuration.
• The resistance between the terminals of an
ammeter is determined by the chosen
scale of the ammeter.
– In general, for ammeters, the higher the
maximum value of the current for a
particular scale, the smaller will the internal
resistance be.

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LOADING EFFECTS OF
INSTRUMENTS

FIG. 5.73 Including the effects of the

internal resistance of an ammeter: (a) 2
mA scale; (b) 2 A scale.

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LOADING EFFECTS OF
INSTRUMENTS

FIG. 5.74 Applying an ammeter set on the 2 mA scale to a circuit with

resistors in the kilohm range: (a) ideal; (b) practical.

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APPLICATIONS
• Before looking at a few applications, we need to
consider a few general characteristics of the series
configuration that you should always keep in mind
when designing a system.
• First, and probably the most important, is that if
one element of a series combination of
elements should fail, it will disrupt the
response of all the series elements. If an open
circuit occurs, the current will be zero. If a
short circuit results, the voltage will increase
across the other elements, and the current will
increase in magnitude.

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APPLICATIONS
• Second, and a thought you should always
keep in mind, is that for the same source
voltage, the more elements you place in
series, the less is the current and the
less is the voltage across all the
elements of the series combination.
• Last, and a result discussed in detail in this
chapter, is that the current is the same
for each element of a series
combination, but the voltage across
each element is a function of its
terminal resistance.

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APPLICATIONS
Series Control

• One common use of the series

configuration is in setting up a system that
ensures that everything is in place before
full power is applied.

FIG. 5.77 Series control over an operating

system.

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APPLICATIONS
Holiday Lights

• In recent years, the small blinking holiday

lights with 50 to 100 bulbs on a string have
become very popular.

FIG. 5.78 Holiday lights: (a) 50-unit set; (b) bulb

construction.

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APPLICATIONS
Holiday Lights

FIG. 5.79 (a) Single-set wiring diagram; (b) special wiring

arrangement; (c) redrawn schematic; (d) special plug and flasher unit.

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APPLICATIONS
Microwave Oven

FIG. 5.80 Series safety switches in a microwave

oven.

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APPLICATIONS
Series Alarm Circuit

FIG. 5.81 Series alarm circuit.

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COMPUTER ANALYSIS
Multisim

FIG. 5.84 Applying Multisim

to a series dc circuit.

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