8.

1 General Linear Transformation

Definition
If T: V→W is a function from a vector space V into a vector
space W, then T is called a linear transformation from
V to W if for all vectors u and v in V and all scalors c

 T (u+v) = T (u) + T (v)

 T (cu) = cT (u)

In the special case where V=W, the linear transformation

T:V→V is called a linear operator on V.
Example 2
Zero Transformation
The mapping T:V→W such that T (v)=0 for every v in V is
a linear transformation called the zero transformation.
To see that T is linear, observe that

T (u+v) = 0. T (u) = 0, T (v) = 0. And T (k u) = 0

Therefore,

T (u+v) =T (u) +T (v) and T (k u) = kT (u)

Example3
Identify Operator

The mapping I: V→V defined by I (v) =

v is called the identify operator on V.
Example 4
Dilation and Contraction operators
Let V be any vector space and k any fixed scalar. The
function T:V→V defined by
T (v) = k v
is linear operator on V.

 Dilation: k > 1
 Contraction: 0 < k < 1
Dilation and Contraction operators
Example 5
Orthogonal Projections
Suppose that W is a finite-dimensional subspace of an
inner product space V ; then the orthogonal
projection of V onto W is the transformation
defined by
T (v ) = projwv
that if
S = {w1, w2, …, wr}
is any orthogonal basis for W, then T (v ) is given by the formula
T (v ) = projwv = <v,w1>w1 + <v,w2>w2 +…+<v,wr>wr
The proof that T is a linear transformation follows from properties
of the inner product.
For example,
T (u+v) = <u+v, w1>w1 + <u+v, w2>w2 +… +<u+v, wr> wr
= <u, w1>w1 + <u, w2>w2 +… + <u, wr>wr
+ <v, w1>w1 + <v, w2>w2 +… + <v, wr>wr
= T (u) + T (v)
Simarly, T (ku) = kT (u)
Example 6
Computing an Orthogonal Projection
Let V = R3 have the Euclidean inner product. The vector w1 =
(1,0,0) and w2 = (0,1,0) from an orthogonal basis for the xy-
plane. If v = (x,y,z) is any vector in R3 , the orthogonal
projection of R3 onto the xy-plane is given by
T (v ) = <v, w1>w1 + <v, w2>w2
= x (1, 0, 0) + y (0, 1, 0)
= ( x, y, 0 )
Example 7
A Linear Transformation from a space V to Rn

Let S = {w1 , w2 , …, wn } be a basis for an n-dimensional

vector space V, and let
(v)s = (k1, k2, …, kn )

Be the coordinate vector relative to S of a vector v in V;

thus
v = k1 w + k2 w2 + …+ kn wn

Define T: V→Rn to be the function that maps v into its

coordinate vector relative to S; that is,
T (v) = (v)s = (k1, k2, …, kn )
The function T is linear transformation. To see that this is so,
suppose that u and v are vectors in V and that
u = c1 w1+ c2 w2+ …+ cn wn and
v = d1 w1+ d2 w2+ …+ dn wn
Thus,
(u)s = (c1, c2, …, cn ) and (v)s = (d1, d2, …, dn )
But
u+v = (c1+d1) w1+ (c2+d2) w2+…+ (cn+dn) wn
k u = (kc1) w1 +(kc2) w2 +…+ (kcn) wn
So that
(u+v)s = (c1+d1, c2+d2 …, cn+dn )
(k u)s = (kc1, kc2, …, kcn )
Therefore,
(u+v)s = (u)s + (v)s and (k u)s = k (u)s
Expressing these equations of T, we obtain
T (u+v) = T (u) + T (v) and T (k u) = kT (u)
Which shows that T is a linear transformation.

REMARK. The computations in preceding example could

just as well have been performed using coordinate
matrices rather than coordinate vectors; that is ,
[u+v] = [u]s +[v]s and [k u]s = k [u]s
Example 8
A Linear Transformation from pn to pn+1

Let p = p(x) = C0 X + C1X2 + …+ CnX n+1 be a polynomial in Pn , and

define the function T: Pn → Pn+1 by

T (p) = T (p(x)) = xp(x)= C0 X + C1X2 + …+ CnX n+1

The function T is a linear transformation, since for any scalar k

and any polynomials p1 and p2 in Pn we have
T (p1+p2) = T (p1(x) + p2 (x)) = x (p1(x)+p2 (x))
= x p1 (x) + x p2 (x) = T (p1) +T (p2)
 and
T (k p) = T (k p(x)) = x (k p(x))= k (x p(x))= k T(p)
Example 9
A linear Operator on Pn
Let p = p(x) = c0 X + c1X2 + …+ cnX n+1 be a polynomial
in Pn , and let a and b be any scalars. We leave it as
an exercise to show that the function T defined by
T (p) = T(p(x)) = p (ax+b) = c0 + c1 (ax+b) + …+
cn(ax+b) n

is a linear operator. For example, if ax+b = 3x – 5, then

T: P2 → P2 would be the linear operator given by the
formula
T (c0 + c1x+ c2 x2 ) = c0 + c1 (3x-5) + c2 (3x-5) 2
Example 10
A Linear Transformation Using an Inner Product

Let V be an inner product space and let v0 be any fixed

vector in V. Let T:V→R be the transformation that
maps a vector v into its inner product with v0 ;
that is,
T (v) = <v, v0>
From the properties of an inner product
T (u+v) = <u+v, v0>= <u, v0> + <v, v0>
and
T (k u) = <k u, v0 > = k <u, v0 > = kT (u)
So that T is a linear transformation.
Example 11

A Linear Transformation from C1(-∞,∞) to F (-∞,∞)

Let V = C1(-∞,∞) be the vector space of functions with

continuous first derivatives on (-∞,∞) and let W = F
(-∞,∞) be the vector space of all real-valued
functions defined on (-∞,∞).
Let D:V→W be the transformation that maps a function
f = f (x) into its derivative; that is,
D (f) = f’ (x)
From the properties of differentiation, we have
D (f+g) = D (f)+D (g) and D (k f) = kD (f)
Thus, D is a linear transformation.
Example 12
A Linear Transformation from C (-∞,∞) to C1(-∞,∞)

Let V = C (-∞,∞) be the vector space of

continuous functions on (-∞,∞) and let W =
C1(-∞,∞) be the vector space of functions
with continuous first derivatives on (-∞,∞).
Let J:V→W be the transformation x
that maps a
f = f (x) into the integral 0 f (t ) dt . For
example, if f=x2 , then
x
J (f) =  t2dt =
0
From the properties of integration, we have
x x x
J (f+g) = 0 ( f (t )  g (t ))dt = 0 f (t )dt + 
0
g (t )dt
= J (f) + J (g)

x x
J (c f) = 0 cf (t )dt = c  f (t )dt = cJ (f)
0

So J is a linear transformation.
Example 13
A Transformation That Is Not Linear

Let T:Mnn →R be the transformation that maps an n × n

matrix into its determinant; that is,
T (A) = det (A)
If n>1, then this transformation does not satisfy either
of the properties required of a linear transformation.
For example, we saw Example 1 of Section 2.3 that
det (A1+A2) ≠ det (A1) + det (A2)
in general. Moreover, det (cA) =C n det (A), so
det (cA) ≠ c det (A)
in general. Thus, T is not linear transformation.
Properties of Linear Transformation
If T:V→W is a linear transformation, then for any vectors v1 and
v2 in V and any scalars c1 and c2 , we have
T (c1 v1 + c2 v2) = T (c1 v1 ) + T (c2 v2) = c1T (v1 ) + c2T (v2)

and more generally, if v1 , v2 , …, vn are vectors in V and c1 , c2 , …,

cn are scalars, then
T (c1 v1 + c2 v2 +…+ cn vn ) =
c1T (v1 ) + c2T ( v2 ) +…+ cnT ( vn ) (1)

Formula (1) is sometimes described by saying that linear

transformations preserve linear combinations.
Theorem 8.1.1
If T:V→W is a linear transformation, then:
(a) T (0) = 0
(b) T (-v ) = -T (v ) for all v in V

(c) T (v-w ) = T (v ) - T (w) for all v and w in

V
Proof.
(a) Let v be any vector in V. Since 0v=0, we have
T (0)=T (0v)=0T (v)=0

(b) T (-v) = T ((-1)v) = (-1)T (v)=-T (v)

(c) v-w=v+(-1)w; thus,

T (v-w)= T (v + (-1)w) = T (v) + (-1)T (w)
= T (v) -T (w)
Finding Linear Transformations from
Images of Basis
If T:V→W is a linear transformation, and if {v1 , v2 , …, vn }
is any basis for V, then the image T (v) of any vector v
in V can be calculated from images
T (v1), T (v2), …, T (vn)
of the basis vectors. This can be done by first expressing v
as a linear combination of the basis vectors, say
v = c1 v1+ c2 v2+ …+ cn vn
and then using Formula(1) to write
T (v) = c1 T (v1) + c2 T (v2) + … + cn T (vn)
In words, a linear transformation is completely
determined by its images of any basis vectors.
Example 14
Computing with Images of Basis Vectors
Consider the basis S = {v1 , v2 , v3 } for R3 ,
where v1 = (1,1,1), v2 =(1,1,0), and v3 =
(1,0,0). Let T: R3 →R2 be the linear
transformation such that
T (v1)=(1,0), T (v2)=(2,-1), T (v3)=(4,3)

Find a formula for T (x1 , x2 , x3 ); then use this

formula to compute T (2,-3,5).
Solution.
We first express x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) as a linear combination of v1
=(1,1,1), v2 =(1,1,0), and v3 = (1,0,0). If we write
(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = c1 (1,1,1) + c2 (1,1,0) + c3 (1,0,0)

then on equating corresponding components we obtain

c1 + c2 + c3 = x1
c1 + c2 = x2
c1 = x3
which yields c1 = x3 , c2 = x2 - x3 , c3 = x1 - x2 , so that

(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = x3 (1,1,1) + (x2 - x3 ) (1,1,0) + (x1 - x2 ) (1,0,0)

= x3 v1 + (x2 - x3 ) v2 + (x1 - x2 ) v3
Thus,
T (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = x3 T (v1) + (x2 - x3 ) T (v2) + (x1 - x2 ) T (v3)
= x3 (1,0) + (x2 - x3 ) (2,-1) + (x1 - x2 ) (4,3)
= (4x1 -2x2 -x3 , 3x1 - 4x2 +x3)

From this formula we obtain

T (2 , -3 , 5 ) =(9,23)
Composition of T2 with T1
If T1 :U→V and T2 :V→W are linear
transformations, the composition of T2 with T1
, denoted by T2 。 T1 (read “T2 circle T1 ”), is
the function defined by the formula

(T2 。 T1 )(u) = T2 (T1 (u)) (2)

where u is a vector in U
 Theorem 8.1.2
If T1 :U→V and T2 :V→W are linear
transformations, then (T2 。 T1 ):U→W is also
a linear transformation.
Proof. If u and v are vectors in U and c is a scalar, then it follows
from (2) and the linearity of T1 andT2 that
(T2 。 T1 )(u+v) = T2 (T1(u+v)) = T2 (T1(u)+T1 (v))
= T2 (T1(u)) + T2 (T1(v))
= (T2 。 T1 )(u) + (T2 。 T1 )(v)
and
(T2 。 T1 )(c u) = T2 (T1 (c u)) = T2 (cT1(u))
= cT2 (T1 (u)) = c (T2 。 T1 )(u)

Thus, T2 。 T1 satisfies the two requirements of a linear

transformation.
Example 15
Composition of Linear Transformations
Let T1 : P1 → P1 and T2 : P2 → P2 be the linear transformations given
by the formulas
T1(p(x)) = xp(x) and T2 (p(x)) = p (2x+4)

Then the composition is (T2 。 T1 ): P1 → P2 is given by the formula

(T2 。 T1 )(p(x)) = (T2)(T1(p(x))) = T2 (xp(x)) = (2x+4)p (2x+4)

In particular, if p(x) = c0 + c1 x, then

(T2 。 T1 )(p(x)) = (T2 。 T1 )(c0 + c1 x)
= (2x+4) (c0 + c1 (2x+4))
= c0 (2x+4) + c1 (2x+4)2
Example 16
Composition with the Identify Operator
If T:V→V is any linear operator, and if I:V→V is the
identity operator, then for all vectors v in V we have
(T 。 I )(v) = T (I (v)) = T (v)
(I 。 T )(v) = I (T (v)) = T (v)
It follows that T 。 I and I 。 T are the same as T ; that is,
T 。 I=T and I 。 T = T (3)

We conclude this section by noting that compositions can be

defined for more than two linear transformations. For
example, if
T1 : U → V and T2 : V→ W ,and T3 : W→ Y
are linear transformations, then the composition
T3 。 T2 。 T1 is defined by
(T3 。 T2 。 T1 )(u) = T3 (T2 (T1 (u))) (4)
8.2 Kernel And Range
Definition
 ker(T ): the kernel of T
If T:V→W is a linear transformation, then the
set of vectors in V that T maps into 0

 R (T ): the range of T
The set of all vectors in W that are images
under T of at least one vector in V
Example 1
Kernel and Range of a Matrix Transformation

If TA :Rn →Rm is multiplication by the m×n

matrix A, then from the discussion
preceding the definition above,

 the kernel of TA is the nullspace of A

 the range of TA is the column space of A

Example 2
Kernel and Range of the Zero Transformation

Let T:V→W be the zero transformation.

Since T maps every vector in V into 0,
it follows that ker(T ) = V.

Moreover, since 0 is the only image

under T of vectors in V, we have R (T )
= {0}.
Example 3
Kernel and Range of the Identity Operator

Let I:V→V be the identity operator. Since

I (v) = v for all vectors in V, every
vector in V is the image of some
vector; thus, R(I ) = V.

Since the only vector that I maps into 0

is 0, it follows that ker(I ) = {0}.
Example 4
Kernel and Range of an Orthogonal Projection

Let T: R3 →R3 be the orthogonal projection on the xy-

plane. The kernel of T is the set of points that T
maps into 0 = (0,0,0); these are the points on the z-
axis.
Since T maps every points in R3 into the xy-plane, the range
of T must be some subset of this plane. But every point
(x0 ,y0 ,0) in the xy-plane is the image under T of some
point; in fact, it is the image of all points on the vertical
line that passes through (x0 ,y0 , 0). Thus R(T ) is the
entire xy-plane.
Example 5
Kernel and Range of a Rotation
Let T: R2 →R2 be the linear operator that rotates each vector
in the xy-plane through the angle θ. Since every vector in
the xy-plane can be obtained by rotating through some
vector through angle θ, we have R(T ) = R2 . Moreover,
the only vector that rotates into 0 is 0, so ker(T ) = {0}.
Example 6
Kernel of a Differentiation Transformation

Let V= C1 (-∞,∞) be the vector space of functions with

continuous first derivatives on (-∞,∞) , let W = F (-
∞,∞) be the vector space of all real-valued functions
defined on (-∞,∞) , and let D:V→W be the
differentiation transformation D (f) = f’(x).

The kernel of D is the set of functions in V with

derivative zero. From calculus, this is the set of
constant functions on (-∞,∞) .
 Theorem 8.2.1
If T:V→W is linear transformation, then:

(a) The kernel of T is a subspace of V.

(b) The range of T is a subspace of W.
Proof (a).
Let v1 and v2 be vectors in ker(T ), and let k be any
scalar. Then
T (v1 + v2) = T (v1) + T (v2) = 0+0 = 0
so that v1 + v2 is in ker(T ).

Also,
T (k v1) = kT (v1) = k 0 = 0
so that k v1 is in ker(T ).
Proof (b).
Let w1 and w2 be vectors in the range of T , and let k
be any scalar. There are vectors a1 and a2 in V such
that T (a1) = w1 and T(a2) = w2 . Let a = a1 + a2
and b = k a1 .
Then
T (a) = T (a1 + a2) = T (a1) + T (a2) = w1 + w2
and
T (b) = T (k a1) = kT (a1) = k w1
Definition
 nank (T): the rank of T
If T:V→W is a linear transformation,
then the dimension of tha range of T is
the rank of T .

nullity (T): the nullity of T

the dimension of the kernel is the nullity
of T.
 Theorem 8.2.2
If A is an m×n matrix and TA :Rn →Rm is
multiplication by A , then:
(a) nullity (TA ) = nullity (A )

(b) rank (TA ) = rank (A )

Example 7
Finding Rank and Nullity

Let TA :R6 →R4 be multiplication by

 1 2 0 4 5  3
 3 7 2 0 1 4 
A=  
 2 5 2 4 6 1
 
 4 9 2 4 4 7 

Find the rank and nullity of TA

Solution.
In Example 1 of Section 5.6 we showed
that rank (A ) = 2 and nullity (A ) = 4.
Thus, from Theorem 8.2.2 we have
rank (TA ) = 2 and nullity (TA ) = 4.
Example 8
Finding Rank and Nullity

Let T: R3 →R3 be the orthogonal

projection on the xy-plane. From
Example 4, the kernel of T is the z-
axis, which is one-dimensional; and the
range of T is the xy-plane, which is
two-dimensional. Thus,
nullity (T ) = 1 and rank (T ) = 2
Dimension Theorem for Linear Transformations
 Theorem 8.2.3
If T:V→W is a linear transformation from an n-
dimensional vector space V to a vector space W, then

rank (T ) + nullity (T ) = n

In words, this theorem states that for linear

transformations the rank plus the nullity is equal to
the dimension of the domain.
Example 9
Using the Dimension Theorem
Let T: R2 →R2 be the linear operator that rotates
each vector in the xy-plane through an angle θ .
We showed in Example 5 that ker(T ) = {0} and
R (T ) = R2 .Thus,

rank (T ) + nullity (T ) = 2 + 0 = 2

Which is consistent with the fact thar the domain of

T is two-dimensional.
8.3 Inverse Linear Transformations
Definition
 one-to-one
A linear transformation T:V→W is said to
be one-to-one if T maps distinct
vectors in V into distinct vectors in W .
Example 1
A One-to-One Linear Transformation

Recall from Theorem 4.3.1 that if A is an

n×n matrix and TA :Rn→Rn is
multiplication by A , then TA is one-to-
one if and only if A is an invertible
matrix.
Example 2
A One-to-One Linear Transformation
Let T: Pn → Pn+1 be the linear transformation
T (p) = T(p(x)) = xp(x)
Discussed in Example 8 of Section 8.1. If
p = p(x) = c0 + c1 x +…+ cn xn and
q = q(x) = d0 + d1 x +…+ dn xn
are distinct polynomials, then they differ in at least one
coefficient. Thus,
T(p) = c0 x + c1 x2 +…+ cn xn+1 and
T(q) = d0 x + d1 x2 +…+ dn xn+1
Also differ in at least one coefficient. Thus, since it maps distinct
polynomials p and q into distinct polynomials T (p) and T (q).
Example 3
A Transformation That Is Not One-to-One
Let
D: C1(-∞,∞) → F (-∞,∞)
be the differentiation transformation discussed in
Example 11 of Section 8.1. This linear transformation
is not one-to-one because it maps functions that
differ by a constant into the same function. For
example,

D(x2) = D(xn +1) = 2x

Equivalent Statements
 Theorem 8.3.1
If T:V→W is a linear transformation, then the
following are equivalent.

(a) T is one-to-one
(b) The kernel of T contains only zero vector;
that is , ker(T) = {0}
(c) Nullity (T) = 0
Theorem 8.3.2
If V is a finite-dimensional vector space and
T:V ->V is a linear operator then the following
are equivalent.

(a)T is one to one

(b) ker(T) = {0}
(c)nullity(T) = 0
(d)The range of T is V;that is ,R(T) =V
Example 5
Let T A:R 4 -> R 4 be multiplication by
1 3  2 4
2 6  4 8 

A= 3 9 1 5
 
1 1 4 8

Determine whether T A is one to one.

 Example 5(Cont.)
Solution:
det(A)=0,since the first two rows of A

are proportional and consequently A I

is not invertible.Thus, T A is not one
to one.
Inverse Linear Transformations
If T :V -> W is a linear transformation,
denoted by R (T ),is the subspace of W
consisting of all images under T of vector
in V.

If T is one to one,then each vector w in

R(T ) is the image of a unique vector v in V.
 Inverse Linear Transformations
This uniqueness allows us to define a new
function,call the inverse of T. denoted
by T –1.which maps w back into v(Fig 8.3.1).
 Inverse Linear Transformations
T –1:R (T ) -> V is a linear transformation.
Moreover,it follows from the defined of T –1 that

T –1(T (v)) = T –1(w) = v (2a)

T –1(T (w)) = T –1(v) = w (2b)

so that T and T –1,when applied in succession in

either the effect of one another.
Example 7
Let T :R 3 ->R 3 be the linear operator
defined by the formula
T (x1,x2,x3)=(3x1+x2,-2x1-4x2+3x3,5x1+4 x2-2x3)

Solution:
3 1 0  4  2  3
 2  4 3    11 6 9 
[T ]=   ,then[T ]-1=  
 5 4  2  12 7 10 
 Example 7(Cont.)
  x1    x1   4  2  3  x1 
   x 2   11 6 9   x 2 
T –1   x 2  =[T –1]
  x3 
 =     
   x3   12 7 10   x3 

 4 x1  2 x 2  3x3
  11x1 6 x 2 9 x3 
=  
 12 x1 7 x 2 10 x 3 

Expressing this result in horizontal notation yields

T –1(X1,X2,X3)=(4X1-2X2-3X3,-11X1+6X2+9X3,-12X1+7X2+10X3)
Theorem 8.3.3
 If T1:U->V and T2:V->W are one to one
linear transformation then:

(a)T2 0 T1 is one to one

(b) (T2 0 T1)-1 = T1-1 0 T2-1