Ac Fundamentals

electronics fundamentals
circuits, devices, and applications
THOMAS L. FLOYD
DAVID M. BUCHLA
chapter 8
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Floyd/Buchla River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 8
Sine waves
The sinusoidal waveform (sine wave) is the fundamental
alternating current (ac) and alternating voltage
waveform.
Electrical sine waves are

named from the
mathematical function
with the same shape.

Chapter 8
A wave is a disturbance. Unlike water waves, electrical

waves cannot be seen directly but they have similar
characteristics. All periodic waves can be constructed
from sine waves, which is why sine waves are
fundamental.

Chapter 8
Sine waves
Sine waves are characterized by the amplitude and period.
The amplitude is the maximum value of a voltage or
current; the period is the time interval for one complete
cycle. 20 V
15 V
The amplitude (A) 10 V
A
of this sine wave
is 20 V 0 V
0 25 3 7 .5 5 0 .0
t (s)
The period is 50.0 s -1 0 V

-1 5 V
-2 0 V
T
Chapter 8
Sine waves
The period of a sine wave can be measured between
any two corresponding points on the waveform.
TT T T
A
T T
By contrast, the amplitude of a sine wave is only

measured from the center to the maximum point.
Chapter 8
Frequency
Frequency ( f ) is the number of cycles that a sine wave
completes in one second.
Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz).
If 3 cycles of a wave occur in one second, the frequency

is 3.0 Hz 1.0 s

Chapter 8
Period and frequency

The period and frequency are reciprocals of each other.
1 1
f  and T
T f
Thus, if you know one, you can easily find the other.
(The 1/x key on your calculator is handy for converting between f and T.)
If the period is 50 s, the frequency is 0.02 MHz = 20 kHz.

Chapter 8
Sinusoidal voltage
Generation of a sinesources
wave
Sinusoidal voltages are produced by ac generators and
electronic oscillators.
When a conductor rotates in a constant magnetic
field, a sinusoidal wave is generated.
CC
N B
B DD S
A B C D
AA
M o t io n o f c o n d u c t o r C o n d u c to r
When theWhenlooptheisconductor is moving parallel
moving perpendicular with
to the
lines ofthe lines
flux, theofmaximum
flux, no voltage is induced.
voltage is induced.
Chapter 8
AC generator (alternator)
Generators convert rotational energy to electrical energy. A
stationary field alternator with a rotating armature is shown.
The armature has an induced voltage, which is connected
through slip rings and brushes to a load. The armature loops
are wound on a magnetic core (not shown for simplicity).
Small alternators may use a

permanent magnet as shown N S
here; other use field coils to
produce the magnetic flux.
b ru s h e s
a r m a t u re
s lip r in g s

Chapter 8
AC generator (alternator)
By increasing the number of poles, the number of cycles
per revolution is increased. A four-pole generator will
produce two complete cycles in each revolution.

Chapter 8
Readout
Function generators
Typical controls:
Function selection
Frequency
Range
Adjust Outputs
Output level (amplitude)
DC offset Duty cycle
CMOS output
S in e S q u a re Tr ia n g le

Chapter 8
Sine wave voltage and current values

There are several ways to specify the voltage of a
sinusoidal voltage waveform. The amplitude of a sine
wave is also called the peak value, abbreviated as VP for
a voltage waveform. 2 0 V
15 V
10 V
VP
The peak voltage of
0 V t (s)
this waveform is 20 V. 0 25 3 7 .5 5 0 .0
-1 0 V
-1 5 V
-2 0 V

Chapter 8

The voltage of a sine wave can also be specified as
either the peak-to-peak or the rms value. The peak-to-
peak is twice the peak value. The rms value is 0.707
times the peak value. 2 0 V
15 V
The peak-to-peak 10 V
Vrms
voltage is 40 V. t (s)
0 V
0 VPP 25 3 7 .5 5 0 .0
The rms voltage
-1 0 V
is 14.1 V. -1 5 V
-2 0 V

Chapter 8

For some purposes, the average value (actually the half-
wave average) is used to specify the voltage or current.
By definition, the average value is as 0.637 times the
peak value. 20 V
15 V
10 V
The average value for Vavg
the sinusoidal voltage 0 V
0 25 3 7 .5 5 0 .0
t (s)
is 12.7 V.
-1 0 V
-1 5 V
-2 0 V

Chapter 8
Angular measurement
Angular measurements can be made in degrees (o) or
radians. The radian (rad) is the angle that is formed when
the arc is equal to the radius of a circle. There are 360o or
2 radians in one complete revolution.
1 .0
0 .8
R 0 .6
0 .4
0 .2
0   
R 0 3  5  3  7  2 
- 0 .2 4 2 4 4 2 4
- 0 .4
- 0 .6
- 0 .8
- 1 .0

Chapter 8
Angular measurement
There are 2 radians in one complete revolution and 360o
in one revolution. To find the number of radians, given
the number of degrees: 2 rad
rad   degrees
360
 rad
This can be simplified to: rad   degrees
180
To find the number of degrees, given the number of

radians: 180
deg   rad
 rad

Chapter 8
Angular measurement
How many radians are in 45o?
 rad
rad   degrees
180
 rad
=  45  0.785 rad
180
How many degrees are in 1.2 radians?

180
deg   rad
 rad
180
  1.2 rad = 69
 rad

Chapter 8
Sine wave equation

Instantaneous values of a wave are shown as v or i. The
equation for the instantaneous voltage (v) of a sine
wave is
v  V p sin 
where
Vp = Peak voltage
= Angle in rad or degrees
If the peak voltage is 25 V, the instantaneous

voltage at 50 degrees is 19.2 V
Chapter 8
Sine wave equation

A plot of the example in the previous slide (peak at
25 V) is shown. The instantaneous voltage at 50o is
19.2 V as previously calculated.
9 0
Vp Vp= 25 V
v = V p s in = 1 9 .2 V
= 50
0 50
V p

Chapter 8
Phasors
The sine wave can be represented as the projection of a
vector rotating at a constant rate. This rotating vector is
called a phasor. Phasors are useful for showing the
phase relationships in ac circuits.
90
180 0 0 90 180 360

Chapter 8
Phase shift
The phase of a sine wave is an angular measurement
that specifies the position of a sine wave relative to a
reference. To show that a sine wave is shifted to the
left or right of this reference, a term is added to the
equation given previously.
v  VP sin    
where
 = Phase shift

Chapter 8
Phase shift Example of a wave that lags the

reference …and the equation
R e f e re n c e has a negative phase
40 shift
30 P e a k v o lt a g e
20 v = 30 V sin (  45o)
V o lt a g e ( V )
10
0
0 45 90 135 180 2 2 5 270 315 360 405
-2 0
-3 0 Notice that a lagging sine
-40 wave is below the axis at 0o
A n g le ( )

Chapter 8
Phase shift Example of a wave that leads the

reference
Notice that a leading sine
R e f e re n c e
40
wave is above the axis at 0o
30 P e a k vo lt a g e
20
v = 30 V sin ( + 45o)
V o lt a g e ( V )
10
-45 0 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 3 1 5 360

-1 0
-2 0 …and the equation
-3 0 has a positive phase
-4 0
shift
A n g le ( )

Chapter 8
Phase shift
An important application of phase-shifted sine waves is in
electrical power systems. Electrical utilities generate ac with
three phases that are separated by 120° as illustrated.
Normally, 3-phase power is delivered to the user with three hot lines
plus neutral. The voltage of each phase, with respect to neutral is 120 V.
120o 120o 120o

Chapter 8
Power in resistive AC circuits

The power relationships developed for dc circuits apply
to ac circuits except you must use rms values in ac
circuits when calculating power.
For example, the dc and the ac sources
The power formulas are: produce the same power to the bulb:
P  Vrms I rms 120 Vdc
2
Vrms 0V
P ac or dc
R source
Bulb
170 Vp
P  I rms
2
R = 120 Vrms
0V

Chapter 8
Power in resistive AC circuits

Assume a sine wave with a peak value of 40 V is
applied to a 100  resistive load. What power is
dissipated? 40
30
20
Voltage (V)
10
0
-1 0
-2 0
-3 0
- 40
Vrms = 0.707 x Vp = 0.707 x 40 V = 28.3 V

2
Vrms 28.3 V 2
P   8W
R 100 
Chapter 8
Superimposed dc and ac voltages

Frequently dc and ac voltages are together in a waveform.
They can be added algebraically, to produce a composite
waveform of an ac voltage “riding” on a dc level.

Chapter 8
Alternators
Alternators are ac generators. Utility companies use 3-phase
alternators and deliver all three phases to industrial
customers. A simplified 3-phase alternator is illustrated.
Phase 1
Neutral
Phase 2
Phase 3

Chapter 8
Alternators
In vehicles, alternators generate ac, which is converted to dc
for operating electrical devices and charging the battery. A
basic vehicle alternator is illustrated. AC is more efficient to
produce and can be easily regulated, Housing
hence it is generated and converted to Stator coils

dc by diodes.
Rotor
The output is taken from the
rotor through the slip rings. Diode plate
Diodes Slip rings

Chapter 8
AC Motors
There are two major classifications of ac motors. These are
the induction motor and the synchronous motor. Both
types use a rotating field in the stator windings.
Induction motors work because current is induced in the rotor by the
changing current in the stator. This current creates a magnetic field that
reacts with the moving field of the stator, which develops a torque and
causes the rotor to turn.
Synchronous motors have a magnet for the rotor. In small motors, this
can be a permanent magnet, which keeps up with the rotating field of the
stator. Large motors use an electromagnet in the rotor, with external dc
supplied to generate the magnetic field.

Chapter 8
Pulse definitions
Ideal pulses
L e a d in g ( ris in g ) e d g e L e a d in g ( f a llin g ) e d g e
T ra ilin g ( f a llin g ) e d g e T ra ilin g ( ris in g ) e d g e
B a s e lin e
A m p lit u d e A m p lit u d e
B a s e lin e
P u ls e P u ls e
w id t h w id t h
( a ) P o s it iv e - g o in g p u ls e ( b ) N e g a t iv e - g o in g p u ls e

Chapter 8
Pulse definitions
Non-ideal pulses
A A
0 .9 A
0 .5 A
0 .1 A
t t
tW
tr tf
( a ) R is e a n d f a ll t im e s ( b ) P u ls e w id t h
Notice that rise and fall times are measured between

the 10% and 90% levels whereas pulse width is
measured at the 50% level.
Chapter 8
Triangular and sawtooth waves

Triangular and sawtooth waveforms are formed by
voltage or current ramps (linear increase/decrease)
Triangular waveforms have

positive-going and negative-
going ramps of equal duration.
The sawtooth waveform consists

of two ramps, one of much longer
duration than the other.

Chapter 8
Harmonics
All repetitive non-sinusoidal waveforms are composed
of a fundamental frequency (repetition rate of the
waveform) and harmonic frequencies.
Odd harmonics are frequencies that are odd multiples
of the fundamental frequency.
Even harmonics are frequencies that are even multiples
of the fundamental frequency.

Chapter 8
Harmonics
A square wave is composed only of the fundamental
frequency and odd harmonics (of the proper amplitude).

Chapter 8
V e r tic a l s e c tio n D is p la y s e c tio n
S ig n a l c o u p lin g V o lt s / D i v
Oscilloscopes
AC
The oscilloscope is divided into
F ro m A n a lo g
C h 1
DC G ND four main sections.
Am p
v e rt ic a l o n ly
V e r tic a l s e c tio n
Cs eo cn t vioe n rs io n / s t o ra g e
( D ig it a l s c o p e s o n ly )
S ig n a l c o u p lin g V o lt s / D i v In t e n s it y
AC V e rt ic a l D ig it a l D i s p l a y s e c t i o n
DC G ND
Am p
o n ly To d is p la y s e c t io n
C h 1
p o s it io n (CD oign itva e l r ss ioc on p/ set os r oa ng lye )
AC
V e r t ic a l A m p A n a lo g
DC G ND
C Ho n ov er irszioo n n/ s tt oa ral Fgr oe m h o r iz o n t a l s e c t io n
p o s it io n o n ly
C h 2
T rig g e r s e c tio n
C h 2
AC
DC G ND
Am p
C o n v e r s io n / s t o r a g e
( D sige itca t l i soc no p e s o n ly )
In t e n s it y
D ig it a l
E x t e r n a l t rig g e r T rig g e r o n ly
c o u p lin g so u rc e T rig g e r
H o r iz o n ta l C o n t ro l a n d p ro c e s s
T r ig g e r s e c tio n s e c t i o n le v e( Dl aig nit da l s c o p e s o n ly )
AC s lo p e
E x te rn a l E x t e r n a l t r ig g e r
c o u p lin g
T r ig g e r
so u rc e T r ig g e r C h 2 C o n tro l a n d p ro c e s s
t rig g e r DC C h 1 le v e l a n d S e c / D iv
E x t e rn a l
AC
DC C h 2
s lo p e
S e c / D iv
T rig g e r
C h 1
e Tb im
a s ce e ircb ua its se
t r ig g e r
Ext
E xt T r ig g e r
c ir c u it s T im
L in e L in e H o r iz o n t a l
H o r iz o n t a l
p o s it io n
p o s it io n
AC
P o w e r s u p p ly
AC
D C t o a ll s e c t io n s

V e rtic a l s e c tio n
Chapter 8 S ig n a l c o u p lin g V o lt s / D i v
AC
Am p
D is p la y s e c tio n
DC G ND
C h 1 C o n v e r s io n / s t o r a g e
V e r t ic a l A n a lo g
p o s it io n o n ly
AC
Am p
DC G ND In t e n s it y
C h 2 C o n v e r s io n / s t o r a g e
D ig it a l
o n ly
H o r iz o n ta l
T r ig g e r s e c tio n s e c tio n
E x t e r n a l t r ig g e r T r ig g e r
c o u p lin g so u rc e T r ig g e r C o n tro l a n d p ro c e s s
le v e l a n d ( D ig it a l s c o p e s o n ly )
AC s lo p e
E x t e rn a l C h 2 S e c / D iv
t r ig g e r DC C h 1
T r ig g e r
c ir c u it s T im e b a s e
Ext
L in e H o r iz o n t a l
p o s it io n
AC
P o w e r s u p p ly
D C t o a ll s e c t io n s
ElectronicsFundamentals
Electronics Fundamentals 8 edition th
© 2010©Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
Floyd/Buchla
Copyright 2007 Prentice-Hall
Circuits, Devices and Applications - Floyd River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 8
Oscilloscopes Display Vertical Horizontal

Trigger
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Chapter 8
Selected Key Terms
Sine wave A type of waveform that follows a cyclic
sinusoidal pattern defined by the formula
y = A sin 
Alternating Current that reverses direction in response to
current a change in source voltage polarity.
Period (T) The time interval for one complete cycle of a

periodic waveform.
Frequency (f) A measure of the rate of change of a periodic
function; the number of cycles completed in 1 s.
Hertz The unit of frequency. One hertz equals one
cycle per second.
Chapter 8
Selected Key Terms
Instantaneous The voltage or current value of a waveform at
value a given instant in time.
Peak value The voltage or current value of a waveform at

its maximum positive or negative points.
Peak-to-peak The voltage or current value of a waveform
value measured from its minimum to its maximum
points.
rms value The value of a sinusoidal voltage that indicates
its heating effect, also known as effective
value. It is equal to 0.707 times the peak value.
rms stands for root mean square.
Chapter 8
Selected Key Terms
Radian A unit of angular measurement. There are 2
radians in one complete 360o revolution.
Phase The relative angular displacement of a time-varying
waveform in terms of its occurrence with respect to
a reference.
Amplitude The maximum value of a voltage or current.
Pulse A type of waveform that consists of two equal

and opposite steps in voltage or current separated
by a time interval.
Harmonics The frequencies contained in a composite
waveform, which are integer multiples of the
pulse repetition frequency.
Chapter 8
Quiz
1. In North America, the frequency of ac utility voltage is

60 Hz. The period is
a. 8.3 ms
b. 16.7 ms
c. 60 ms
d. 60 s

Chapter 8
Quiz
2. The amplitude of a sine wave is measured

a. at the maximum point
b. between the minimum and maximum points
c. at the midpoint
d. anywhere on the wave

Chapter 8
Quiz
3. An example of an equation for a waveform that lags the

reference is
a. v = 40 V sin ()
b. v = 100 V sin ( + 35o)
c. v = 5.0 V sin (  27o)
d. v = 27 V

Chapter 8
Quiz
4. In the equation v = Vp sin  , the letter v stands for the

a. peak value
b. average value
c. rms value
d. instantaneous value

Chapter 8
Quiz
5. The time base of an oscilloscope is determined by the

setting of the
a. vertical controls
b. horizontal controls
c. trigger controls
d. none of the above

Chapter 8
Quiz
6. A sawtooth waveform has

a. equal positive and negative going ramps
b. two ramps - one much longer than the other
c. two equal pulses
d. two unequal pulses

Chapter 8
Quiz
7. The number of radians in 90o are

a. /2
b. 
c. 2/3
d. 2

Chapter 8
Quiz
8. For the waveform shown, the same power would be

delivered to a load with a dc voltage of
60 V
a. 21.2 V 45 V
30 V
b. 37.8 V
c. 42.4 V 0 V
0 25 3 7 .5 5 0 .0
t (s)
d. 60.0 V -3 0 V
-4 5 V
-6 0 V

Chapter 8
Quiz
9. A square wave consists of

a. the fundamental and odd harmonics
b. the fundamental and even harmonics
c. the fundamental and all harmonics
d. only the fundamental

Chapter 8
Quiz
10. A control on the oscilloscope that is used to set the

desired number of cycles of a wave on the display is
a. volts per division control
b. time per division control
c. trigger level control
d. horizontal position control

Chapter 8
Quiz
Answers:
1. b 6. b
2. a 7. a
3. c 8. c
4. d 9. a
5. b 10. b


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electronics fundamentals

circuits, devices, and applications

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Electrical sine waves are

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

A wave is a disturbance. Unlike water waves, electrical

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

The period is 50.0 s -1 0 V

By contrast, the amplitude of a sine wave is only

If 3 cycles of a wave occur in one second, the frequency

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Period and frequency

If the period is 50 s, the frequency is 0.02 MHz = 20 kHz.

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Small alternators may use a

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Sine wave voltage and current values

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Sine wave voltage and current values

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Sine wave voltage and current values

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

To find the number of degrees, given the number of

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

How many degrees are in 1.2 radians?

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Sine wave equation

If the peak voltage is 25 V, the instantaneous

Sine wave equation

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

180 0 0 90 180 360

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Phase shift Example of a wave that lags the

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Phase shift Example of a wave that leads the

-45 0 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 3 1 5 360

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Power in resistive AC circuits

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Power in resistive AC circuits

Vrms = 0.707 x Vp = 0.707 x 40 V = 28.3 V

Superimposed dc and ac voltages

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

hence it is generated and converted to Stator coils

Diodes Slip rings

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle

Notice that rise and fall times are measured between

Triangular and sawtooth waves

Triangular waveforms have

The sawtooth waveform consists

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition © 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle