Lecture 3 - Relations

Chapter 9

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• Chapter Summary
Relations and Their Properties
n-ary Relations and Their Applications (not
currently included in overheads)
Representing Relations
Closures of Relations (not currently included in
overheads)
Equivalence Relations
Partial Orderings
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• Relations and Their
Properties
Section 9.1

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• Section Summary
Relations and Functions
Properties of Relations
• Reflexive Relations
• Symmetric and Antisymmetric Relations
• Transitive Relations

Combining Relations

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• Binary Relations
Definition: A binary relation R from a set A to a
set B is a subset R  A  B.
Example:
• Let A = {0,1,2} and B = {a,b}
• {(0, a), (0, b), (1,a) , (2, b)} is a relation from A to B.
• We can represent relations from a set A to a set B
graphically or using a table:
Relations are more general than
functions. A function is a relation
where exactly one element of B is
related to each element of A.
Jump to long description
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• Binary Relations on a Set 1

Definition: A binary relation R on a set A is a

subset of A × A or a relation from A to A.
Example:
• Suppose that A = {a,b,c}. Then R = {(a,a),(a,b), (a,c)}
is a relation on A.
• Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}. The ordered pairs in the relation
R = {(a,b) | a divides b} are
(1,1), (1, 2), (1,3), (1, 4), (2, 2), (2, 4), (3, 3), and (4, 4).

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• Binary Relations on a Set 3

Example: Consider these relations on the set of integers:

R1    a, b a  b , R4    a, b a  b ,
R2    a, b a  b , R5    a, b a  b  1 ,
R3    a, b a  b or a  b , R6    a, b a  b  3 .

Note that these relations are on an infinite set and each of these
relations is an infinite set.
Which of these relations contain each of the pairs

(1,1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (1, −1), and (2, 2)?

Solution: Checking the conditions that define each relation, we see

that the pair (1,1) is in R1, R3, R4 , and R6: (1,2) is in R1 and R6: (2,1) is in
R2, R5, and R6: (1, −1) is in R2, R3, and R6 : (2,2) is in R1, R3, and R4.
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• Reflexive Relations
Definition: R is reflexive iff (a,a) ∊ R for every element a ∊ A.
Written symbolically, R is reflexive if and only if
x  x U   x, x   R 
Example: The following relations on the integers are reflexive:
R1    a, b a  b , If A = ∅ then the empty relation is
reflexive vacuously. That is the empty
R3    a, b a  b or a  b , relation on an empty set is reflexive!

R4    a, b a  b .
The following relations are not reflexive:
 
R2   a, b a  b  note that 3 3 ,
R5    a, b a  b  1  note that 3  3  1 ,
R6    a, b a  b  3  note that 4  4 ’ 3 .
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• Symmetric Relations
Definition: R is symmetric iff (b,a) ∊ R whenever (a,b) ∊ R for all
a,b ∊ A. Written symbolically, R is symmetric if and only if
xy  x, y   R   y, x   R 
Example: The following relations on the integers are symmetric:
R3    a, b a  b or a  b ,
R4    a, b a  b ,
R6    a, b a  b  3 .
The following are not symmetric:
 
R1   a, b a  b  note that 3  4, but 4 ’ 3 ,
R2    a, b a  b  note that 4  3, but 3 4 ,
R5    a, b a  b  1  note that 4  3  1, but 3  4  1 .
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• Antisymmetric Relations
Definition: A relation R on a set A such that for all a,b ∊ A if (a,b) ∊
R and (b,a) ∊ R, then a = b is called antisymmetric. Written
symbolically, R is antisymmetric if and only if
xy  x, y   R   y, x   R  x  y 
Example: The following relations on the integers are antisymmetric:
R1    a, b a  b , For any integer, if a a ≤ b and
R2    a, b a  b , b ≤ a , then a = b.
R4    a, b a  b ,
R5    a, b a  b  1 .
The following relations are notantisymmetric:

R3   a, b a  b or a  b 
 note that both  1, 1 and  1,1 belongs to R  ,
3

R6    a, b a  b  3  note that both  1, 2 and  2,1 belongs to R  .

6

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• Transitive Relations
Definition: A relation R on a set A is called transitive if whenever (a,b)
∊ R and (b,c) ∊ R, then (a,c) ∊ R, for all a,b,c ∊ A. Written
symbolically, R is transitive if and only if
xyz  x, y   R   y , z   R   x, z   R 
Example: The following relations on the integers are transitive:
R1    a, b a  b , For every integer, a ≤ b
   a, b a  b ,
and b ≤ c, then b ≤ c.
R2
R3    a, b a  b or a  b ,
R4    a, b a  b .
The following are not transitive:
R5    a, b a  b  1  note that both  3, 2 and  4,3 belongs to R5 , but not  3, 3  ,
R6    a, b a  b  3  note that both  2,1 and  1, 2 belongs to R6 , but not  2, 2  .
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• Combining Relations
Given two relations R1 and R2, we can combine them
using basic set operations to form new relations such as
R1 ∪ R2, R1 ∩ R2, R1 − R2, and R2 − R1.

Example: Let A = {1,2,3} and B = {1,2,3,4}. The relations

R1 = {(1,1),(2,2),(3,3)} and R2 = {(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4)}
can be combined using basic set operations to form
new relations:
R1  R2    1,1 ,  1, 2 ,  1,3 ,  1, 4 ,  2, 2  3,3 
R1  R2    1,1  R1  R2    2, 2 ,  3,3 
R2  R1    1, 2 ,  1,3 ,  1, 4 
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• Composition
Definition: Suppose
• R1 is a relation from a set A to a set B.

• R2 is a relation from B to a set C.

Then the composition (or composite) of R2 with

R1, is a relation from A to C where
• if (x,y) is a member of R1 and (y,z) is a member of
R2, then (x,z) is a member of R2∘ R1.

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• Representing the Composition of
Relations

R1  R2    b, x  ,  b, z  
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• Powers of a Relation
Definition: Let R be a binary relation on A. Then the
powers Rn of the relation R can be defined inductively by:
• Basis Step: R1 = R
• Inductive Step: Rn+1 = Rn ∘ R
(see the slides for Section 9.3 for further insights)
The powers of a transitive relation are subsets of the
relation. This is established by the following theorem:
Theorem 1: The relation R on a set A is transitive iff
Rn ⊆ R for n = 1,2,3 ….
(see the text for a proof via mathematical induction)
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• Representing Relations
Section 9.3

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• Section Summary
Representing Relations using Matrices
Representing Relations using Digraphs

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• Representing Relations Using
Matrices
A relation between finite sets can be represented using a zero-
one matrix.
Suppose R is a relation from A = {a1, a2, …, am} to
B = {b1, b2, …, bn}.
• The elements of the two sets can be listed in any particular
arbitrary order. When A = B, we use the same ordering.

The relation R is represented by the matrix MR = [mij], where

 
1 if ai , b j  R,

mij  
 
0 if ai , b j  R.
The matrix representing R has a 1 as its (i,j) entry when ai is
related to bj and a 0 if ai is not related to bj.
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• Examples of Representing Relations
Using Matrices 1

Example 1: Suppose that A = {1,2,3} and B = {1,2}. Let

R be the relation from A to B containing (a,b) if a ∈ A,
b ∈ B, and a > b. What is the matrix representing R
(assuming the ordering of elements is the same as the
increasing numerical order)?
Solution: Because R = {(2,1), (3,1),(3,2)}, the matrix is

0 0 
 
M R  1 0 
 
1 1 
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• Examples of Representing Relations
Using Matrices 2

Example 2: Let A = {a1,a2, a3} and B = {b1,b2, b3,b4, b5}.

Which ordered pairs are in the relation R represented
by the matrix
0 1 0 0 0 
 
M R  1 0 1 1 0  ?
 
1 0 1 0 1 
Solution: Because R consists of those ordered pairs
(ai,bj) with mij = 1, it follows that:
R   a ,b  , a ,b  , a ,b  , a ,b  , a ,b  , a ,b  , a ,b  .
1 2 2 1 2 3 2 4 3 1 3 3 3 5

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• Matrices of Relations on Sets
If R is a reflexive relation, all the elements on the
main diagonal of MR are equal to 1.

R is a symmetric relation, if and only if mij = 1

whenever mji = 1. R is an antisymmetric relation,
if and only if mij = 0 or mji = 0 when i≠ j.

Jump to long description

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• Example of a Relation on a Set
Example 3: Suppose that the relation R on a set is
represented by the matrix
1 1 0 
 
M R  1 1 1  .
 
0 1 1 
Is R reflexive, symmetric, and/or antisymmetric?
Solution: Because all the diagonal elements are equal
to 1, R is reflexive. Because MR is symmetric, R is
symmetric and not antisymmetric because both m1,2
and m2,1 are 1.
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• Representing Relations Using
Digraphs
Definition: A directed graph, or digraph, consists of a set V of
vertices (or nodes) together with a set E of ordered pairs of
elements of V called edges (or arcs). The vertex a is called the
initial vertex of the edge (a,b), and the vertex b is called the
terminal vertex of this edge.
• An edge of the form (a,a) is called a loop.

Example 7: A drawing of the directed graph with vertices a, b, c,

and d, and edges (a, b), (a, d), (b, b), (b, d), (c, a), (c, b), and (d, b)
is shown here.

Jump to long description

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• Examples of Digraphs Representing
Relations
Example 8: What are the ordered pairs in the
relation represented by this directed graph?

Solution: The ordered pairs in the relation are

(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 3),
(4, 1), and (4, 3)

Jump to long description

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• Determining which Properties a
Relation has from its Digraph
Reflexivity: A loop must be present at all vertices
in the graph.
Symmetry: If (x,y) is an edge, then so is (y,x).
Antisymmetry: If (x,y) with x ≠ y is an edge, then
(y,x) is not an edge.
Transitivity: If (x,y) and (y,z) are edges, then so is
(x,z).

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• Determining which Properties a Relation
has from its Digraph – Example 1

Reflexive? No, not every vertex has a loop

Symmetric? Yes (trivially), there is no edge from one vertex to another
Antisymmetric? Yes (trivially), there is no edge from one vertex to
another
Transitive? Yes, (trivially) since there is no edge from one vertex to
another
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• Determining which Properties a Relation
has from its Digraph – Example 2

Reflexive? No, there are no loops

Symmetric? No, there is an edge from a to b, but not from b to a
Antisymmetric? No, there is an edge from d to b and b to d
Transitive? No, there are edges from a to c and from c to b, but there
is no edge from a to d
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• Determining which Properties a Relation
has from its Digraph – Example 3

Reflexive? No, there are no loops

Symmetric? No, for example, there is no edge from c to a
Antisymmetric? Yes, whenever there is an edge from one vertex to
another, there is not one going back
Transitive? Yes.
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• Determining which Properties a Relation
has from its Digraph – Example 4

Reflexive? No, there are no loops

Symmetric? No, for example, there is no edge from d to a
Antisymmetric? Yes, whenever there is an edge from one vertex to
another, there is not one going back
Transitive? Yes (trivially), there are no two edges where the first edge
ends at the vertex where the second edge begins
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• Example of the Powers of a Relation

The pair (x,y) is in Rn if there is a path of length n from x to y in R

(following the direction of the arrows).
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