CONTROL AND

COORDINATION
ANIMAL HORMONES
INTRODUCTION

 The changes in the environment to which the organism respond and react are
called stimuli.
 The reaction to stimuli is the characteristic property of the living organism.
 Both plants and animals react to various stimuli around them but the method
of reacting to stimuli is not similar in plants and animals e.g. plants bend
towards light but animals do not. The animals can react to stimuli in many
different ways because they have a nervous system and an endocrine system
involving hormones.
 The working together of the various organs of an organism in a systematic
manner so as to produce a proper response to stimulus, is called coordination.
CONT..

 The multicellular animals ( except sponges ) have specialized cells called

nerve cells ( neurons ) to respond to stimuli and coordinate their activities.
 A system made up of nerve cells is called nervous system.
 The coordination in simple multicellular animals takes place through nervous
system only e.g in Hydra.

 The contral and coordination in higher animals called vertebrates ( including

human being ) takes place through nervous system as well as hormonal
system called endocrine system.
 CONTROL AND
COORDINATION IN HUMANS

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
NERVOUS
( HORMONAL
SYSTEM
SYSTEM )
HORMONES

 Hormones are the chemical substances which coordinate the activities of living organism
and also their growth.
 Characteristics of hormones are given :

- are secreted in small amounts by the endocrine glands.

-Poured directly into blood and carried body by blood circulation.
-Have their effect at the sites different from the site where they are made, so
they are also called chemical messengers.
-Act on the specific tissues or organs ( called target organs ).
-Coordinate the activities of the body and also its growth.
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

 A GROUP OF ENDOCRINE GLANDS WHICH PRODUCES

VARIOUS HORMONES IS CALLED AN ENDOCRINE SYSTEM.
Major glands in endocrine system

 HYPOTHALAMUS
 PITUTARY GLAND
 PARATHYROID GLAND
 THYROID GLAND
 ADRENAL GLAND
 THYMUS
 PANCREAS
 TESTES
 OVARIES
ENDOCRINE GLANDS IN HUMANS
 HYPOTHALAMUS
The hypothalamus is a small but important area in the center of the
brain.
 It plays an important role in hormone production and helps to
stimulate many important processes in the body and is located in
the brain, between the pituitary gland and thalamus.
 It plays a part in many essential functions of the body such as:
 body temperature
 thirst
 appetite and weight control
 emotions
 sleep cycles
 sex drive
 childbirth
 blood pressure and heart rate
 production of digestive juices
 balancing bodily fluids
LOCATION OF HYPOTHALAMUS
Example of hypothalamus gland hormone

TRH

TSH

T3 AND
T4
Hypothalamus gland hormone

 Corticotropic releasing hormone CRH: stimulates ACTH secretion

    Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH): stimulates TSH and prolactin
secretion
    Growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH): stimulates GH secretion
  Somatostatin: inhibits GH (and other hormone) secretion
    Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH): stimulates FSH and LH secretion
    Prolactin releasing hormone (PRH): stimulates PRL secretion
    Prolactin inhibiting hormone (dopamine): inhibits PRL secretion
PITUTARY GLAND
 The pituitary gland is a tiny organ, the size of a pea, found at the
base of the brain.
 “master gland”
 It produces many hormones that travel throughout the body,
directing certain processes or stimulating other glands to produce
other hormones.
 The pituitary has two distinct parts:
1. Front (anterior) lobe, which accounts for 80% of the pituitary
gland's weight
2. Back (posterior) lobe
PITUITARY GLAND CONT…..
HORMONES BY PITUITARY GLAND CONT…..

 Growth hormone : regulates growth and physical development and has important
effects on body shape by stimulating muscle formation and reducing fat tissue.
  Too much growth hormone causes a disease that is called acromegaly.
 In children, too much growth hormone causes excessive growth, called gigantism. 
DISEASES RELATED TO GROWTH
HORMONE
DISEASES RELATED TO GROWTH
HORMONE CONT..
DISEASES RELATED TO GROWTH
HORMONE CONT..
HORMONES BY PITUITARY GLAND CONT…..

 Thyroid-stimulating hormone : which stimulates the thyroid gland to produce

thyroid hormones. which regulate the body's metabolism, energy balance,
growth, and nervous system activity. Too much TSH is rare and will cause
hyperthyroidism (too much thyroid hormone). Lack of TSH results in
hypothyroidism (not enough thyroid hormone).
HORMONES BY PITUITARY GLAND CONT…..

 Adrenocorticotropic hormone ( ACTH) : also called corticotropin, which

stimulates the adrenal glands to produce cortisol and other hormones.
2.  It helps maintain blood pressure and blood glucose (sugar) levels, and is
produced in larger amounts when we’re under stress, especially during 
illness, surgery, or after injury.
3. Too much ACTH will result in too much cortisol production; this is called 
Cushing’s syndrome or Cushing’s disease. Low ACTH will result in low
cortisol, called adrenal insufficiency.  
HORMONES BY PITUITARY GLAND CONT…..

 Follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone (the gonadotropins) :

which stimulate the testes to produce sperm, the ovaries to produce eggs,
and the sex organs to produce sex hormones ( testosterone and estrogen)
HORMONES BY PITUITARY GLAND CONT…..

PROLACTIN :

This hormone stimulates breast milk production after childbirth. When prolactin
is high, it affects the hormones that control the ovaries in women and testes in
men.
Hormones Secreted by the pituitary gland:
HORMONES BY POSTERIOR LOBE OF PITUITARY GLAND
…..

POSTERIOR LOBE
OF PITUITARY
GLAND

Vasopressin Oxytocin
HORMONES BY POSTERIOR LOBE OF PITUITARY GLAND
CONT…..

 Vasopressin (also called antidiuretic hormone) : regulates the water balance

in the body.
 Oxytocin : causes the uterus to contract during childbirth and immediately
after delivery to prevent excessive bleeding. Oxytocin also stimulates
contractions of the milk ducts in the breast.
PARATHYROID GLAND
 The parathyroid glands are small pea-sized glands located
in the neck just behind the butterfly-shaped thyroid gland.
 Parathyroid gland produces parathyroid hormone.
 The parathyroid glands are important in tightly controlling
calcium levels in the bloodstream. 
 When calcium levels are low, parathyroid hormone is
released by the parathyroid glands into the blood and
causes the bones to release calcium and increase levels in
the bloodstream. It also causes the kidneys to stop calcium
being lost in urine as well as stimulating the kidneys to
increase vitamin D metabolism
THYROID GLAND
 The thyroid is a butterfly-shaped gland that sits low on the front of
the neck.  The thyroid has two side lobes, connected by a bridge
(isthmus) in the middle.
 The thyroid gland uses iodine from the foods you eat to make two
main hormones:
1. Triiodothyronine (T3)
2. Thyroxine (T4)
 The hypothalamus produces TSH Releasing Hormone (TRH) that
signals the pituitary to tell the thyroid gland to produce more or less
of T3 and T4 by either increasing or decreasing the release of a
hormone called thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH).
 When T3 and T4 levels are low in the blood, the pituitary gland
releases more TSH to tell the thyroid gland to produce more thyroid
hormones.
 If T3 and T4 levels are high, the pituitary gland releases less TSH to
the thyroid gland to slow production of these hormones.
THYROID CONDITIONS

 Goiter: A general term for thyroid swelling. Goiters can be

harmless, or can represent iodine deficiency or a condition
associated with thyroid inflammation called Hashimoto’s
thyroiditis.
 Hyperthyroidism: Excessive thyroid hormone production.
Hyperthyroidism is most often caused by Graves disease or an
overactive thyroid nodule.
 Hypothyroidism: Low production of thyroid hormone. Thyroid
damage caused by autoimmune disease is the most common
cause of hypothyroidism .
 Graves disease: An autoimmune condition in which the thyroid
is overstimulated, causing hyperthyroidism.
 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM

Thyroid hormones the negative feedback mechanism is mediated mainly

through TSH (secreted by the pituitary gland) and to some extent
by TRH (secreted by Hypothalamus ).

The thyroid hormones provide negative feedback to the thyrotropes TSH and

TRH: when the thyroid hormones are high, TSH production is suppressed. This
negative feedback also occurs when levels of TSH are high, causing TRH
production to be suppressed.
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM
ADRENAL GLAND
 The adrenal glands are two glands that sit on top of your
kidneys that are made up of two distinct parts.
1. The adrenal cortex—the outer part of the gland—produces
hormones that are vital to life, such as cortisol (which
helps regulate metabolism and helps your body respond to
stress) and aldosterone (which helps control blood
pressure).
2. The adrenal medulla—the inner part of the gland—produces
nonessential (that is, you don’t need them to live)
hormones, such as adrenaline (which helps your body react
to stress)and noradrenaline.
ADRENAL GLANDS
ADRENAL GLANDS CONT..

FUNCTIONS OF HORMONES SECRETED BY ADRENAL GLANDS

They control many important functions, including:
1. metabolism
2. blood sugar levels
3. blood pressure
4. salt and water balance
5. pregnancy
6. sexual development before and during puberty
7. stress response
8. the balance of sex hormones, including estrogen and testosterone
Adrenal insufficiency

 Primary adrenal insufficiency, or Addison’s disease. This

condition develops when the adrenal gland itself does not
function well and cannot make enough cortisol.
 Secondary adrenal insufficiency. This occurs when the
pituitary gland does not make enough of a hormone called
adrenocorticotropin (ACTH). Without ACTH, the adrenals do
not receive a signal to make cortisol.
 Tertiary adrenal insufficiency. This occurs when the brain
cannot produce enough corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH).
Without CRH, the pituitary gland cannot make ACTH. This
means that the adrenals cannot make enough cortisol.
PANCREAS
 The pancreas is a large gland that lies alongside the
stomach and the small bowel. It is about six inches
(approximately 15 cm) long and is divided into the head,
body and tail. 
 The endocrinal part secretes various types of hormones.
These are produced by a specialized tissue in the
pancreas and then released to the capillary system and
reached the liver by the portal venous circulation. The
specialized tissue is called islets of Langerhans.
 Three types of cells are regonized in these islets.
1. A cells – producing glucagon (25% of all islet cells).
2. B cells – producing insulin (60% of all islet cells).
3. D cells – producing somatostatin (10% of all islet cells).
 Islets of Langerhans play a crucial role in carbohydrate
metabolism and so in a plasma glucose concentration.
THYMUS GLAND
THYMUS GLAND CONT…
PANCREAS CONT….

 Function :
1. Pancreatic hormones are responsible for storage of fat and glucose, as
glycogen, after meal.
2. Enables the mobilisation of energy reserves as a result of food deprivation,
stress, physical activity.
3. Maintain the constant plasma glucose concentration.
4. Promote growth.
Pancreas Conditions
 Diabetes, type 1: The body’s immune system attacks and destroys the
pancreas’ insulin-producing cells. Lifelong insulin injections are required to
control blood sugar.
 Diabetes, type 2: The pancreas loses the ability to appropriately produce and
release insulin. The body also becomes resistant to insulin, and blood sugar
rises.
TESTES
 The testes, also known as testicles or male gonads, lie behind the penis in a
pouch of skin called the scrotum.
 The testes lie outside of the body and are maintained at a temperature about
two degrees Centigrade lower than the body's core temperature. This is
because sperm production and quality is optimal at this lower temperature
 The testes have two functions – to produce sperm and to produce hormones,
particularly testosterone.
TESTES CONT..

FUNCTIONS OF TESTOSTERONE.

 Promotes the growth of the penis as a male gets older as well as facial and body hair. It also deepens the voice
of a male at a certain age. Other functions of testosterone include:
1. Maintaining sex drive
2. Promoting production of sperm
3. Maintaining healthy levels of muscle and bone mass
 Conditions :
1. Testicular trauma or physical injury
2. Testicular torsion
3. Testicular rupture
4. Undescended testicle (cryptorchidism)
5. cancer
OVARIES
 The ovaries form part of the female reproductive
system. Each woman has two ovaries.
 They are oval in shape, about four centimetres long
and lie on either side of the womb (uterus) against the
wall of the pelvis in a region known as the ovarian
fossa. 
 Produces eggs and sex hormones—including:-
  estrogen, testosterone, and progesterone
OVARIES CONT..

 The function of the ovaries is controlled by gonadotrophin-releasing

hormone released from nerve cells in the hypothalamus which send their
messages to the pituitary gland to produce luteinising hormone and follicle
stimulating hormone. These are carried in the bloodstream to control
the menstrual cycle.
OVARIES CONT..
SUMMARY

So we discussed about Animal Hormones

why it is important to us .
We discussed about glands, their
locations their functions and disorders.