Anemias: Clinical Pharmacy

Anemias
Clinical Pharmacy
DEFINITION
 Anemias are a group of diseases characterized by a
decrease in hemoglobin or red blood cells (RBCs),
resulting in decreased oxygen-carrying capacity of
blood.
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
 Anemias can be classified on the basis of RBC morphology,
etiology, or pathophysiology.
 Morphologic classifications are based on cell size. Macrocytic
cells are larger than normal and are associated with deficiencies of
vitamin B12 or folate. Microcytic cells are smaller than normal
and are associated with iron deficiency or a genetic anomaly;
corresponding iron concentrations are decreased (hypochromic).
 Iron-deficiency anemia can be caused by inadequate dietary
intake, inadequate gastrointestinal absorption, increased iron
demand (e.g., pregnancy), blood loss, and chronic diseases.
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
 Vitamin B12- and folate-deficiency anemias can be caused by
inadequate dietary intake, decreased absorption, and inadequate
utilization*‫)) ا**الستخدا*م‬. Deficiency of intrinsic factor can cause
decreased absorption of vitamin B12 (i.e., pernicious anemia).
 Folate-deficiency anemia can be caused by hyperutilization due to
pregnancy, hemolytic anemia, myelofibrosis, malignancy, chronic
inflammatory disorders, long-term dialysis, or growth spurt. Drugs
can cause anemia by reducing absorption of folate (e.g.,
phenytoin), or by interfering with corresponding metabolic
pathways (e.g., methotrexate).
Iron Def. A. B12 & Folate Def. A
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
 Anemia of chronic disease is a hypoproliferative ( ‫)ب***ا**لتدريج‬
anemia associated with chronic infectious or inflammatory
processes, tissue injury, or conditions that release proinflammatory
cytokines. The pathogenesis is based on shortened RBC survival,
impaired marrow response, and disturbance of iron metabolism.
 Hemolytic anemia results from decreased RBC survival time due
to destruction in the spleen or circulation. The most common
etiologies are RBC membrane defects (e.g., hereditary
spherocytosis), altered hemoglobin solubility or stability (e.g.,
sickle cell anemia and thalassemias), and changes in intracellular
metabolism (e.g., glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase [G6PD]
deficiency).
Classification Systems for Anemias
 Morphology :
 Macrocytic anemias
Megaloblastic anemias
◦ Vitamin B12 deficiency  Normocytic anemias
◦ Folic acid deficiency ◦ Recent blood loss
 Microcytic hypochromic anemias ◦ Hemolysis
◦ Iron-deficiency anemia ◦ Bone marrow failure
◦ Genetic anomaly ◦ Anemia of chronic disease
 Sickle cell anemia
 Thalassemia ◦ Renal failure
 Other hemoglobinopathies ◦ Endocrine disorders
(abnormal hemoglobins)
Classification Systems for Anemias
 Etiology :
 Deficiency
◦ Iron
◦ Vitamin B12
◦ Folic acid
◦ Pyridoxine
 Central, caused by impaired bone marrow function
◦ Anemia of chronic disease
◦ Anemia of the elderly
◦ Malignant bone marrow disorders
 Peripheral
◦ Bleeding (hemorrhage)
◦ Hemolysis (hemolytic anemias)
CLINICAL PRESENTATION
• Signs and symptoms depend on the onset and cause of the
anemia, and on the individual.
• Acute-onset anemia is characterized by cardiorespiratory
symptoms such as tachycardia, light-headedness, and
breathlessness.
• Chronic anemia is characterized by weakness, fatigue,
headache, vertigo, faintness, cold sensitivity, pallor, and
loss of skin tone. Otherwise healthy adults may tolerate
anemia better than elderly patients.
DIAGNOSIS
 Rapid diagnosis is essential because anemia is often a
sign of underlying pathology.
 Laboratory evaluation of anemia involves a complete
blood count including RBC indices, reticulocyte index,

and examinations of the peripheral blood smear and of
the stool for occult blood.
DESIRED OUTCOME
 The ultimate goals of treatment in the anemic patient
are to alleviate signs and symptoms, correct the
underlying etiology (e.g., restore substrates needed for
RBC production), and prevent recurrence of anemia.
IRON-DEFICIENCY ANEMIA
 Oral iron therapy with soluble ferrous iron salts, which
are not enteric coated and not slow- or sustained-release,
is recommended at a daily dosage of 200 mg elemental
iron in two or three divided doses.
 Diet plays a significant role because iron is poorly
absorbed from vegetables, grain products, dairy products,
and eggs; iron is best absorbed from meat, fish, and
poultry.
 Parenteral iron may be required for patients with iron
malabsorption, intolerance of oral iron therapy, or
noncompliance. Parenteral administration, however, does not
hasten the onset of hematologic response.
VITAMIN B12-DEFICIENCY ANEMIA
 Oral vitamin B12 supplementation appears to be as effective
as parenteral, even in patients with pernicious anemia,
because the alternate vitamin B12 absorption pathway is
independent of intrinsic factor. Oral cobalamin is initiated
at 1 to 2 mg daily for 1 to 2 weeks, followed by 1 mg daily.
 Parenteral therapy is more rapid acting than oral therapy
and should be used if neurologic symptoms are present. A
popular regimen is cyanocobalamin 1000 µg daily for a
week, then weekly for a month, and then monthly. When
symptoms resolve, daily oral administration can be
initiated.
FOLATE-DEFICIENCY ANEMIA
 For treatment of folate-deficiency anemia, oral folate 1 mg
daily for 4 months is usually sufficient, unless the etiology
cannot be corrected.
 If malabsorption is present, the daily dose should be
increased to 5 mg.
ANEMIA OF CHRONIC DISEASE
 Treatment of anemia of chronic disease is less specific than
that of other anemias and should focus on correcting
reversible causes. Iron therapy is not effective when
inflammation is present.
 RBC transfusions are effective but should be limited to
episodes of inadequate oxygen transport and hemoglobin

of 8 to 10 g/dL.
 Epoetin alfa can be considered, especially if
cardiovascular status is compromised; but the response can
be impaired in patients with anemia of chronic disease.
HEMOLYTIC ANEMIA
 Treatment of hemolytic anemia should focus on correcting
the underlying cause.
 There is no specific therapy for G6PD deficiency, so
treatment consists of avoiding oxidant medications and

chemicals.
 Steroids, other immunosuppressants, and even
splenectomy can be indicated to reduce RBC destruction.
Sickle Cell Disease
 DEFINITION
 Sickle cell syndromes are hereditary disorders
characterized by the presence of sickle hemoglobin
(HbS) in red blood cells (RBCs).
Sickle Cell Disease
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
 The most common abnormal hemoglobin is Hb S.
 Two genes for hemoglobin S (HbSS) result in sickle cell
disease or sickle cell anemia.

 One gene for hemoglobin S (HbS) results in sickle cell
trait.
 Pathology is more likely to occur with HbSS but can occur with
HbS, especially if it coexists with hemoglobin C or thalassemia.
 The clinical manifestations of sickle cell disease are attributable
to impaired circulation, RBC destruction, and stasis of blood
flow. These problems are attributable to disturbances in RBC
polymerization and to membrane damage.
CLINICAL PRESENTATION
 Sickle cell disease involves many organ systems.
 The feature presentations of sickle cell disease are
hemolytic anemia and vasoocclusion.

 The usual clinical signs and symptoms of sickle cell
disease are chronic anemia; fever; pallor; arthralgia; scleral

icterus; abdominal pain; weakness; anorexia; fatigue;
enlarged liver, spleen, and heart; and hematuria.
DIAGNOSIS
 Sickle cell disease is usually identified by routine
neonatal screening programs using isoelectric focusing.
 Laboratory findings include low hemoglobin; increased
reticulocyte, platelet, and leukocyte counts; and sickle

forms on the peripheral smear.
TREATMENT
 GENERAL PRINCIPLES
 Patients with sickle cell disease require lifelong multidisciplinary
care. Interventions include general measures, preventive
strategies, and treatment of complications and acute crises.
 Patients with sickle cell disease should receive routine
immunizations plus influenza, meningococcal, and pneumococcal
vaccinations.
 Folic acid, 1 mg daily, is recommended in adult patients, pregnant
women, and patients of all ages with chronic hemolysis.
FETAL HEMOGLOBIN INDUCERS
 Increases in HbF correlate with decreased RBC sickling
and adhesion. Patients with low HbF levels have more
frequent crises and higher mortality.
 Hydroxyurea, a chemotherapeutic agent, is indicated for
patients with frequent painful episodes, severe

symptomatic anemia, acute chest syndrome, or other severe
vasoocclusive complications.
 Strategies being considered to induce fetal hemoglobin
include butyrate and 5-aza-2-deoxycytidine.

 Chronic transfusion is indicated to prevent stroke and
stroke recurrence in children.

TREATMENT OF COMPLICATIONS
 Patients should be educated to recognize conditions that require
urgent evaluation.
 To avoid exacerbation during acute illness, patients should maintain
balanced fluid status and oxygen saturation.
 RBC transfusions are indicated for acute exacerbation of
baseline anemia (e.g., aplastic crisis, hepatic or splenic
sequestration, severe hemolysis), severe vasoocclusive episodes,
and procedures requiring general anesthesia or ionic contrast.
 Fever of 38.5°C or higher should be evaluated promptly.
TREATMENT OF SICKLE CELL CRISIS
 Treatment of aplastic crisis is primarily supportive. Blood

transfusions may be indicated for severe or symptomatic
anemia. Antibiotic therapy is not warranted because the
most common etiology is viral, not bacterial, infection.
 Treatment options for splenic sequestration include
observation alone, especially for adults because they tend

to have milder episodes; chronic transfusion to delay
splenectomy; and splenectomy after a life-threatening
crisis, after repetitive episodes, or for chronic
hypersplenism.
TREATMENT OF SICKLE CELL CRISIS
 Hydration and analgesics are the mainstays of treatment

for vasoocclusive (painful) crisis.
 Fluid replacement should be 1.5 times the maintenance
requirement, can be administered intravenously or orally,

and should be monitored to avoid volume overload.
 Mild to moderate pain should be treated with NSAID or
acetaminophen.
 Severe pain should be treated aggressively with an opioid.

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Anemias

blood count including RBC indices, reticulocyte index,

episodes of inadequate oxygen transport and hemoglobin

treatment consists of avoiding oxidant medications and

disease or sickle cell anemia.

hemolytic anemia and vasoocclusion.

disease are chronic anemia; fever; pallor; arthralgia; scleral

reticulocyte, platelet, and leukocyte counts; and sickle

patients with frequent painful episodes, severe

include butyrate and 5-aza-2-deoxycytidine.

stroke recurrence in children.

 Treatment of aplastic crisis is primarily supportive. Blood

observation alone, especially for adults because they tend

 Hydration and analgesics are the mainstays of treatment

requirement, can be administered intravenously or orally,

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