Control Lec.

Stability of Control System

References:
1. Modern control Engineering by OGATA
2. Automatic control system by KUO.
3. Control system Engineering by Norman S. Nise.
4. http://imtiazhussainkalwar.weebly.com.
Stability is the most important system specification. If a system is unstable
transient response and steady-state errors are moot points. An unstable system cannot be
designed for a specific transient response or steady-state error requirement.

Transfer Function: The transfer function G(S) of the plant is ratio of Laplace transform
of output to the Laplace transform of input considering initial conditions to zero.

U(S) G(S) Y(S)

Transfer function helps us to check:

1. The stability of the system

2. Time domain and frequency domain characteristics of the
system
3. Response of the system for any given input

Transfer Function has the form:

Then,
• Roots of denominator polynomial of a transfer function are called
‘poles’.
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• Roots of numerator polynomial of a transfer function are called ‘zeros’.

• The poles and zeros of the system are plotted in s-plane to check the stability of
the system.

j 

LHP

s-plane
• If all the poles of the system lie in left half plane the system is said to be Stable.

• If any of the poles lie in right half plane the system is said to be unstable.

• If pole(s) lie on imaginary axis the system is said to be marginally stable.

• The location of a pole in the complex plane is denoted symbolically by a cross

( x), and the location of a zero by a small circle (0). The s-plane including the
locations of the finite poles and zeros of F ( s ) is called the pole-zero map of F ( s
) . A similar comment holds for the z-plane.

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Complex-Variable Concept

COMPLEX PLANE POLEZERO MAPS:

The rational functions F ( s ) for continuous systems can be rewritten

as

=T.F

where the terms s + zi are factors of the numerator polynomial and the terms s +p i, are
factors of the denominator polynomial.

EX 1: Let F ( s ) be given by

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which can be rewritten as:

F ( s ) has finite zeros at s = - 1 and s = 2. F(s) has finite poles at s = - 3, s = - 1 - j , and s =

- l+j. The pole-zero map of F ( s ) is shown in Fig. below

There are two kinds of stability definitions in control system

study.
 Absolute Stability:

 Relative
Stability:

Methods of determining stability

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Characteristic Equation:
It is the equation formed by putting the denomenter of the T.F of the system equal to
zero.
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )

The Characteristic Equation (C.E) of the system is given

by:

1 G(s)H (s)  0

Most linear closed-loop systems have closed-loop transfer functions of the

form:
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A simple criterion, known as Routh's stability criterion, enables us to determine

the number of closed-loop poles that lie in the right-half s plane without having to
factor the denominator polynomial.

Routh's Stability Criterion:

Routh's stability criterion tells us whether or not there are unstable roots in a
polynomial equation without actually solving for them. This stability criterion applies
to polynomials with only a finite number of terms. When the criterion is applied to a
control system, information about absolute stability can be obtained directly from the
coefficients of the characteristic equation. The procedure in Routh's stability criterion is as
follows:
1. Write the polynomial in s in the following form:

where the coefficients are real quantities. We assume that an ≠ 0; that is, any zero root
has been removed.
2.If any of the coefficients are zero or negative in the presence of at least one
positive coefficient, there is a root or roots that are imaginary or that have positive
real parts.
Therefore, in such a case, the system is not stable.
3.If all coefficients are positive, arrange the coefficients of the polynomial in rows
and columns according to the following pattern:

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The process of forming rows continues until we run out of elements. (The total
number of rows is n + 1.) The coefficients b1, b2, b3, and so on, are evaluated as
follows:

Then continue solve for b4 and b5 in the same way until we obtain zero. The same pattern
of cross- multiplying the coefficients of the two previous rows

The table is continued horizontally and vertically until only zeros are obtained. Any row
can be multiplied by a positive constant before the next row is computed without
disturbing the properties of the table.
 If all the constants in the first column have the same sign (positive or negative)
then, the system is stable.
 If the first column have (positive and negative) then, the system is unstable.
 If one of these values equal to zero then the system is critical and the value of
critical amplifier gain can be obtained accordingly.

EX 1: apply Routh's stability criterion to the following third-order

polynomial:

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where all the coefficients are positive numbers. The array of coefficients
becomes:

The system will be stable

if

Ex 2: Make the Routh table for the system shown in Figure

(a).

SOL: The first step is to find the equivalent closed-loop system because we want to test
the denominator of this function, not the given forward transfer function, for pole location.
Using the feedback formula, we obtain the equivalent system of Figure (b).

Ex 3: Find the range of gain, K, for the system of Figure below that will cause
the system to be stable, unstable, and marginally stable. Assume K > 0.

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SOL: First find the closed-loop transfer function

as:

Next form the Routh table shown as Table

below

1. Since K is assumed positive, we see that all elements in the first column
are always positive except the s1 row. This entry can be positive, zero, or
negative, depending upon the value of K. If K < 1386, all terms in the first
column will be positive, then, the system be stable.
2. If K > 1386, the s1 term in the first column is negative then, the system
be unstable.
3. If K =1386, we have an entire row of zeros. Then, the system is marginally stable

Ex 4: determine the range of K for stability in Figure below.

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Sol: The closed-loop transfer function

is

The characteristic equation

is

The array of coefficients

becomes

For stability, K must be positive, And all coefficients in the first column must be
positive. Therefore,

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Root Locus Method-introduction

The relative stability and the transient performance of a closed loop system are
directly related to the location of the closed-loop roots of the characteristic equation in the
s-plane. It is frequently necessary to adjust one or more system parameters in order to
obtain suitable root location.
It is useful to determine the locus of roots in s-plane as a parameter varied since the roots
is a function of the system’s parameter. The root locus technique is a graphical method
for
sketching the locus of roots in the s-plane as a parameter is varied and has been
utilized extensively in control engineering practice. It provides the engineer with a
measure of the sensitivity of roots of the system a variation in parameter being
considered. The root locus technique may be used to great advantage in conjunction with
the Routh-Hurwitz criterion.

Root Locus Method Developed by Evans while he was a graduate student at UCLA.
In designing a linear control system, we find that the root-locus method proves quite
useful since it indicates the manner in which the open-loop poles and zeros should be
modified so that the response meets system performance specifications. This method is
particularly suited to obtaining approximate results very quickly.
General Rules for Constructing Root
Loci
We shall now summarize the general rules and procedure for constructing the root loci
of the system shown in Figure below. First, obtain the characteristic equation:

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1. Locate the poles and zeros o f G(s)H (s) on the s plane. The root-locus branches
start from open-loop poles and terminate at zeros (finite zeros or zeros at infinity).
2. Determine No. of loci of the plot is equal to the order of C. E
3. Determine the root loci on the real axis. Root loci on the real axis are
determined by open-loop poles and zeros lying on it. The complex-conjugate poles
and zeros of the open-loop transfer function have no effect on the location of the
root loci
real axis on the
because the angle contribution of a pair of complex- poles
or
conjugate zeros is 360" on the real axis.
4. Determine the asymptotes of root loci.

 180(2k  1)
Angle of asymptotes    nm

where
n-----> number of poles
m-----> number of zeros
K
For this Transfer G ( s) H ( ) 
s s(s 1)(s 
Function 2)

 180(2k  1)
 
30
the number of distinct asymptotes is n –
m
5. Determine Point of intersection of asymptotes on real axis (or centroid
of asymptotes) can be find as out

poles zeros
 
nm

Ex: Determine the asymptotes of the

root loci.Haraa Raheem
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For K
G(s)H (s) 
s(s 1)(s 
2)

(0 1 2) 0
 
30

3
 
1 3
  60 ,60 ,180
6. Find the breakaway and
break-in points.

 The breakaway point corresponds to a point in the s plane where multiple roots of the
characteristic equation occur. It is the point from which the root locus branches leaves
real axis and enter in complex plane.
 The break-in point corresponds to a point in the s plane where multiple roots of the
characteristic
 equationoroccur.
The breakaway It ispoints
break-in the point
can bewhere the root
determined locus
from the branches
roots arrives at real
axis. of 
d sK 0

It should be noted that not all the solutions of dK/ds=0 correspond to actual breakaway
points.
If a point at which dK/ds=0 is on a root locus, it is an actual breakaway or break-in
point.
 Stated differently, if at a point at which dK/ds=0 the value of K takes a real
positive
value, then that point is an actual breakaway or break-in
point.

Ex: Determine the breakaway point or break-in point.

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K
G (s)H (s) 
s ( s  1)( s  2 )

The characteristic equation of the system

is
K
1  G(s)H (s)  0
1 s(s  1)(s 
2)

K
 1
s ( s  1) ( s  2 )

K  s(s 1)(s  2)

The breakaway point can now be determined
as
dK

d
s(s 1)(s  2)  s   0 .4 2 2 6
  1 .5 7 7 4
0
ds ds
In fact, evaluation of the values of K corresponding

to s=–0.4226 and s=–1.5774 yields

s  0.4226

7. Determine the points where root loci cross the imaginary

axis.

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The points where the root loci intersect the jw axis can be found easily
by:

(a) use of Routh's stability criterion

(b) letting s = jw in the characteristic equation, equating both the real part and the
imaginary part to zero, and solving for w and K. The values of w thus found
give the frequencies at which root loci cross the imaginary axis. The K value
corresponding to
each crossing frequency gives the gain at the crossing
EX:point.
Determine the points where root loci cross the imaginary axis for C. E
below:

s3  3s 2  2s  K  0
Sol: first method:

The Routh Array Becomes

 The value(s) of K that makes the system marginally stable is 6.

• The crossing points on the imaginary axis can then be found by solving
the auxiliary equation obtained from the s2 row, that is,

Which yields

Second method

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An alternative approach is to let s=jω in the characteristic equation, equate both the
real part and the imaginary part to zero, and then solve for ω and K.
• For present system the characteristic equation is

s3  3s2  2s  K  0
( j)3  3( j)2  2 j  K  0
(K  3 2 )  j(2   3 )  0
(K  32 )  j(2  3 )  0

Equating both real and imaginary parts of this

equation to zero

(2   3 )  0

(K  3 2 )  0
Which yields

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8. Determine the angle of departure (angle of arrival) of the root locus from a
complex pole (at a complex zero). To sketch the root loci with reasonable
accuracy, we must find the directions of the root loci near the complex poles and
zeros. If a test point is chosen and moved in the very vicinity of a complex pole (or
complex zero), the sum of the angular contributions from all other poles and
zeros can be considered to remain the same. Therefore, the angle of departure
(or angle of arrival) of the root locus from a complex pole (or at a complex zero)
can be found by subtracting from 180" the sum of all the angles of vectors
from all other poles and zeros to the complex pole (or complex zero) in
question, with appropriate signs included .
Angle of departure from a complex pole=180 - (sum of the angles of vectors to a
complex pole in question from other poles) + (sum of the angles of vectors to a
complex pole in question from zeros)

Angle of arrival at a complex zero = 180 - (sum of the angles of vectors to a complex
zero in question from other zeros) + (sum of the angles of vectors to a complex zero
in question from poles)

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Ex1: sketch the root locus of second order

equation
( )
( ) ( ) ( )( )

Sol:

1.We have two poles: p1=-1 , p2=-2 n=2

We have one zero z1=-4

m=1
2. the number of distinct asymptotes is n – m=2-
1=1
3.  180(2k  1)
Angle of asymptotes    nm
= 180

4. poles zeros 2 1 3

    

3
5. breakaway point
n ormbreak-in 1
point. 1

( ) ( )
K (s 
1  G(s)H (s)  1 0
 (s 4)
 1)(s 
2)
(s 1)(s  2) k(s 
4)  0
 2  3S 
K   (s 1)(s     
 (s  2 S
  
 2) 4) 
S 4 

 2 
dK 
(S  4)(2S  3)  ( S2  3S  2)  0
ds  (S 
 

4)
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2s2 11s 12  s 2  3s  2  6

0 4

s2  8s 10  0
2

s  1.55, ors  6.45 -2

-4

-6

-8
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8

Ex 2: Sketch the root loci of the control system shown in Figure

below.

Solution:
The procedure for plotting the root loci is as follows:
1.Locate the open-loop poles and zeros on the complex plane. Root loci exist on the
negative real axis between 0 and -1 and between -2 and -3.
2.The number of open-loop poles and that of finite zeros are the same. This means that there
are no asymptotes in the complex region of the s plane.
3.Determine the breakaway and break-in points. The characteristic equation for the system
is

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The breakaway and break-in points are determined

from

as follows:

Notice that both points are on root loci. Therefore, they are actual breakaway or break-
in points. At point s = -0.634, the value of K is

Because point s = -0.634 lies between two poles, it is a breakaway point, and because
point
s = -2.366 lies between two zeros, it is a break-in point.)

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( )
Ex 3: Sketch the root loci of ( ) ( ) ( )( )

1.We have two poles: p1=-3 , p2=-1+j, p3=-1- n=3

j We have one zero z1=-2 m=1

2. the number of distinct asymptotes is n –

m=3-1=2
3.  180(2k  1)
Angle of asymptotes    nm
=

4. poles zeros 3 1 j 1 j 2 3

     1.5
nm 3 1
2

Frequency-Response
Methods and Stability
The frequency response of a system is defined as the steady-state response of the system
to a sinusoidal input signal. The sinusoid is a unique input signal, and the resulting
output signal for a linear system, as well as signals throughout the system, is
sinusoidal in the steady-state. Frequency-response methods were developed in 1930s and
1940s by Nyquist,
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Bode, Nichols, and many others. The frequency-response methods are most powerful
in conventional control theory. They are also indispensable to robust control theory

Presenting Frequency-Response Characteristics in Graphical Forms:

The sinusoidal transfer function, a complex function of the frequency w, is characterized
by its magnitude and phase angle, with frequency as the parameter. There are three
commonly used representations of sinusoidal transfer functions:

1. Bode diagram or logarithmic plot

2. Nyquist plot or polar plot
3. Log-magnitude-versus-phase plot (Nichols plots)

1. Polar Plots
The polar plot of a sinusoidal transfer function G(jω) is a plot of the magnitude of
G(jω) versus the phase angle of G(jω) on polar coordinates as ω is varied from zero

to infinity. Thus, the polar plot is the locus of vectors | ( )| ( ) as ω is varied

from zero to infinity.

Polar Plot

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Each point on the polar plot of G(jω) represents the terminal point of a vector at a
particular value of ω. The projections of G(jω) on the real and imaginary axes are its real
and imaginary components.
 the frequency response can be calculated by replacing s in the function by
transfer
jw.
 It will also be shown that the steady-state response can be given by
G(jω)= , where R is the amplitude ratio of the output and input sinusoids and
is the phase shift between the input sinusoid and the output sinusoid
 Nyquist Stability Plot must be a closed contour

Procedure of Nyquist Plot

1. express the magnitude and phase equations in terms of w

2. Estimate the magnitude and phase for different values of w

3. Plot the curve and determine required performance metrics
Transfer Function Component Representation:
1
The polar plot of G(jω)=1/jω is the negative imaginary axis, G ( j ) 
j
since

1
In polar form G( j)  
90


The polar plot of G(jω)=jω is the positive imaginary axis, G( j ) 

since j

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I n p o la r f o r m G ( j  ) 
 90 

For the sinusoidal transfer

function
1
G( j) 
j
1

ω G( j) G( j)()

(R)

0 1 0o

0.5 0.9 -26o

1 0.7 -45o

2 0.4 -63o

∞ 0 -90

The graph for above example is the mirror image about the diameter of this semicircle. It
is
shown in Fig below by a dashed line.

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Example1: Draw the polar plot of following open loop transfer function.

1
G (s) 
s ( s  1)
SOL:
Put s  1
G( j) 
j j ( j
1)
1
G( j )  1   2 
 2  G( j) 
j 2  j  2  j
j  

 2   
G( j)  4 G( j )   j
j   2 
4
 2
2
4  2

1 1
G ( j )   j
 2
 ( 2

1  1)

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ω Re Im

0 ∞ ∞

0.1 -1 -10

0.5 -0.8 -1.6

1 -0.5 -0.5

2 -0.2 -0.1

3 -0.1 -0.03

∞ 0 0

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