Machine Design & CAD І

(ME-322)

Design for Variable

Loading
 Variable Loading
.

 Type of loading that induces time-varying stresses – may vary





in terms of magnitude, direction and/or point of application
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 Majority of mechanical-oriented applications are subjected to

variable loading – causes failure that differs completely from
the ones under static loading
 Fatigue Failure in Metals
 A phenomenon/mechanism under which materials subjected to
cyclic stresses (over a long period) fail well below their Sy/Sut
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 Characterized by the initiation and propagation of cracks –

account for the majority of machine component failures
 Static Failure vs Fatigue Failure
 Static failure could be predicted well in advance – provides indication of
yielding/Sy (for ductile materials) or deformation/Sut (for brittle materials)
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 Failure theories based on static load are well understood and developed
…

 Fatigue failure hardly gives any visual sign prior to damage

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 Fatigue failure theories are relatively complicated and have not yet been
comprehensively modelled

(i) Failure under Static Loading (ii) Fatigue Failure under Variable Loading
 Stages of Fatigue Failure
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 Fatigue failure consists of three stages

.

i. Crack Initiation:
- Fatigue failure originates from the formation of micro cracks
- Begins at highly concentric stressed regions via localized plastic
deformation
.
.

ii. Crack Propagation:

- Conversion of micro cracks into visible macro cracks
- Form smooth plateau-like fracture surfaces with “beach marks”
.

iii. Fracture:
- Occurs during final loading cycles when the material cannot
bear stresses any further
- Create rough surfaces consisting of “chevron lines”
- Lead towards sudden fracture
Stages of Fatigue Failure (cont.)
 Fatigue Failure Analysis

Fatigue Life Methods

Linear-Elastic Fracture
Stress-Life Method Strain-Life Method Mechanics

- Ideal for low cycle applications

ccurate for high cycle - Requires the assumption of a
-Detailed analysis of
applications pre-existing crack
Easy to implement localized plastic deformation - Predicts crack growth with
- Widely used - Several idealizations lead to respect to stress intensity
uncertainties
 Fatigue Failure Testing
 R. R. Moore Rotating Beam Specimen test – most widely used for fatigue

failure analysis
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 Specimen is subjected to pure bending under constant load with no

transverse shear – results into fully reversed stress cycles
…

 Number of cycles required for fatigue failure is recorded – repeated for

different loading/fully reversed stress conditions

(ii) Dimensions of Test Specimen

(i) R.R. Moore Rotating Beam Machine (iii) Stresses on Specimen under Bending
Stress-Life (S-N) Diagram
 S-N Approximation
 
 Represents an expression between the endurance/fatigue strength (S f)
and number of fully reversible stress cycles (N) – applicable only to Steels
under fully reversible stresses in the region 103 ≤ N ≤ 106 cycles
 ‘’’

 Sssss

where,

 Fully Adjusted Endurance Limit – differs from endurance limit () by

considering different factors affecting it under operating conditions

 Fatigue Strength Fraction – fraction of fatigue strength remaining at

which could be found by using appropriate charts
S-N Approximation (cont.)

Fatigue Strength Fraction vs Ultimate Strength for Steels

 S-N Approximation (cont.)

Deterministic ASTM Minimum Tensile & Yield Strengths for Different Types of Steel
 Numericals
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  Fully Adjusted Endurance Limit
.

 
 Endurance limit is obtained from tests conducted under
standardized conditions (polished specimen with pre-defined

dimensions and temperature)
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 Impracticality of testing machine components under operating

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conditions leads to the modification of endurance limit
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 Modification factors (known as Marin factors) are used to

provide a correlation between the true endurance limit of a
component with the one obtained from lab tests
  Surface Condition Modification Factor
.

 
 Depends upon the surface finish of machine component as well

as tensile strength of the material
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 Rough surfaces are more prone to crack initiation whereas

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higher tend towards brittle materials with unstable cracks
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𝑲 𝒂 =𝒂 × 𝑺 𝒖𝒕 𝒃
 Numericals (cont.)
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  Size Modification Factor
.

 
 Larger size components are more likely to have defects & crack

initiation at highly stressed regions due to larger surface area
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 Following equations apply only to round rotating beams under

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pure bending or torsional loading
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NOTE: For non-rotating circular section, use an equivalent diameter value of D e = 0.37d

 Under pure axial loading, the value of does not depend upon
the component size –
  Loading Modification Factor
.

 
 Accounts for the effect on due to the application of different

types of fatigue loading
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 The following values only hold true

.

i. For single type loading on machine components

ii. If R.R. Moore Rotating Beam Specimen test has been done
under pure bending load

 Sssss
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 In case of multiple types of load, the ‘Combination Loading

Method’ is used
  Temperature Modification Factor
.

 
 and of Steels possess same ratios between their values at elevated and room


temperature i.e.
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 An approximate relationship between the temperature modification factor and

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temperature () could be represented as
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 While coping with, following cases may be dealt for calculating

i. is known – value may be calculated using the above equation OR the

ratio of given in the chart. Use this to find
ii. is unknown – Calculate/Interpolateas mentioned. Use it to find and
follow the conditions given in S-N diagram for
Temperature Modification Factor (cont.)

Effect of Operating Temperature on Tensile Strength of Steel

 Numericals (cont.)
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  Reliability Factor
.

 Relates to the degree of dependence on the estimation/


analysis of component’s endurance strength/limit
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 Reliability Factor (cont.)

Reliability Factors Corresponding to 8% Standard Deviation of the Endurance Limit

  Miscellaneous Effects Factor
.

 Accounts for other possible factors that may affect the fatigue
strength of a machine component – include residual stresses,

cyclic frequency, corrosion, types of plating and many others
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 Limited data is available regarding these factors – requires

further research and experimental analysis for a better

understanding of their impact on the fatigue strength
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.
 Numericals (cont.)
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 Numericals (cont.)
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  Fatigue Stress Concentration Factor
.

 
 Differences based on material’s sensitivity to notches results into a reduced
value of known as the fatigue stress concentration factor – applies to actual
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materials
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 𝝈 𝒎𝒂𝒙= 𝑲 𝒇 × 𝝈 𝒏𝒐𝒎
 Sssss
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 Notch sensitivity (q) accounts for these differences by measuring the ratio of
increase in actual stress to the increase in theoretical stress both with respect


to nominal stress
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  𝐾 𝑓 𝜎𝑜 − 𝜎𝑜 𝑲𝒇 − 𝟏  
𝒒= =
𝐾 𝑡 𝜎 𝑜 − 𝜎 𝑜 𝑲 𝒕 −𝟏
 For materials fully sensitive to notches, whereas for materials which are not
sensitive to notches,
 Fatigue Stress Concentration Factor (cont.)
.

 Notch Sensitivity of a material depends upon its strength and the notch radius
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which may mathematically be approximated for Steels by using the equation
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 Numericals (cont.)
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 Numericals (cont.)
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 Fluctuating Stress
.

 
 Cyclic stresses consisting of a non-zero value for mean and amplitude –
repeated stress is a special type of fluctuating stress in which the stresses
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remain tensile in nature with a minimum value of 0
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 Equations applied for the analysis of fully reversible stresses do not directly
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apply to applications under fluctuating stress conditions
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 The Mid-Range and Alternating stress components are sufficient to

And Ssssssssss
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characterize fluctuating stresses
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 σ = 𝜎 𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝜎 𝑚𝑖𝑛
Sssss

 σ = 𝜎 𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜎 𝑚𝑖𝑛
| |
 Sssss
 Sssss

𝒎 𝒂
2 2

 For no localized plastic strain at notch – & whereas for localized plastic strain
at notch – &
.
 Fluctuating Stress (cont.)

𝝈
  𝒎𝒂𝒙

 𝝈 𝒎

𝝈
  𝒂

𝝈
  𝒎𝒊𝒏
 𝑹 = 𝝈 𝒎𝒊𝒏  𝑨= 𝝈 𝒂
𝝈 𝒎 𝒂𝒙 𝝈𝒎
 Fatigue Analysis for Fluctuating Stress
.

 Modified Goodman line is a conservative and most widely used failure


criteria for designing components subjected to fluctuating stresses
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𝑺𝒚
  𝒂 + 𝝈 𝒎=
𝝈
𝒏
𝒊𝒇  𝒏<𝟏⇒ 𝒚𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈

  𝝈𝒂 + 𝝈𝒎 = 𝟏
𝑺𝒆 𝑺𝒖𝒕 𝒏
𝒊𝒇
  𝒏> 𝟏⇒ 𝑰𝒏𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒇𝒆
 Fatigue Analysis for Fluctuating Stress (cont.)
.

 
 is a fully reversible stress equivalent of a fluctuating stress condition by
considering straight lines to represent a constant fatigue life on the
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Modified Goodman diagram
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σ𝒂
  𝒓𝒆𝒗=
𝝈
σ𝒎
𝟏−
𝑺 𝒖𝒕
 Numericals (cont.)
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 Varying Fluctuating Stress
.

 
 Combination of fluctuating/fully reversible stresses which vary with time –
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each cycle is dealt separately for fatigue analysis of varying fluctuating loads
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 Miner’s rule determines the cumulative damage a varying fluctuating stress

has caused by evaluating the number of cycles () at each stress level ( with
respect to their corresponding number of cycles to failure ()

  𝑛𝑖
𝑫=∑ ; 𝒊𝒇 𝑫 ≥𝟏 ⇒ 𝑭𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒈𝒖𝒆 𝑭𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒖𝒓𝒆
𝑁𝑖

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And Ssssssssss
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 Sssss
 Numericals (cont.)
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