Fden.

2205 FOOD PROCESS ENGINEERING (2+1)

Lecture notes on

Mixing of solids,
pastes and liquids
.
Mixing of solids, pastes, and liquids- characterist ics of mixtures- mixing-blending- emulsif icat ion- Mixing equipment - liquid mixers- mixers f or pastes- and high viscous masses- crit eria for m ixer ef fect iveness- mixing index, Agit ation of liquids- equipment s- impeller- propeller and f low pat terns

Prepared by
Nithya C
Assistant Professor,Food Engineering,KCAET
 Mixing
• Mixing (or blending) is a unit operation in which a uniform mixture is
obtained from two or more components, by dispersing one within
the other(s).
• The larger component is sometimes called the continuous phase
and the smaller component the dispersed phase
• It has very wide applications in many food industries where it is
used to combine ingredients to achieve different functional
properties or sensory characteristics.
• Examples include texture development in doughs and ice cream,
control of sugar crystallisation and aeration of batters and some
chocolate products
• Mixing has no preservative effect and is intended solely as a
processing aid or to alter the eating quality of foods.
 Cont..

• Mixing is often used primarily to develop desirable product

characteristics, rather than simply ensure homogeneity
• It is often multi-component, involving ingredients of different
physical properties and quantities
• It may often involve high viscosity or non-Newtonian liquids
• Some components may be fragile and damaged by over-mixing
• There may be complex relationships between mixing patterns and
product characteristics
Cont..

• The criteria for successful mixing have been described as first

achieving an acceptable product quality (in terms of sensory
properties, functionality, homogeneity, particulate integrity, etc.)
followed by adequate safety, hygienic design, legality (compositional
standards for some foods), process and energy efficiency, and
flexibility to changes in processing
 Theory of solids mixing

• In contrast with liquids and viscous pastes it is not possible to

achieve a completely uniform mixture of dry powders or
particulate solids

• The degree of mixing that is achieved depends on: the relative

particle size, shape and density of each component, the moisture
content, surface characteristics and flow characteristics of each
component, the tendency of the materials to aggregate, the
efficiency of a particular mixer for those components

• In general, materials that are similar in size, shape and density

are able to form a more uniform mixture than are dissimilar
materials
Cont…

• During a mixing operation, differences in these properties also

cause unmixing (or separation) of the component parts

• In some mixtures, uniformity is achieved after a given period and

then unmixing begins. It is therefore important in such cases to time
the mixing operation accurately

• The uniformity of the final product depends on the equilibrium

achieved between the mechanisms of mixing and unmixing, which
in turn is related to the type of mixer, the operating conditions and
the component foods.
Cont…

• If a two-component mixture is sampled at the start of mixing (in the

unmixed state), most samples will consist entirely of one of the
components.
• As mixing proceeds, the composition of each sample becomes more
uniform and approaches the average composition of the mixture
• One method of determining the changes in composition is to
calculate the standard deviation of each fraction in successive
samples:
 Mixing indices

where V the average fractional volume or mass of a component in the

mixture.
 Cont…

•In practice, perfect mixing cannot be achieved, but in efficient mixers the
value becomes very low after a reasonable period

•The mixing index M1 is used when approximately equal masses of

components are mixed and/or at relatively low mixing rates,

• M2 is used when a small quantity of one component is incorporated

into a larger bulk of material and/or at higher mixing rates

• M3 is used for liquids or solids mixing in a similar way to M1

• In practice, all three are examined and the one that is most suitable for the
particular ingredients and type of mixer is selected.
Mixing time
 Theory of liquids mixing
• The component velocities induced in low viscosity liquids by a mixer are
as follows
A. a longitudinal velocity (parallel to the mixer shaft)
B. a rotational velocity (tangential to the mixer shaft)
C. a radial velocity which acts in a direction perpendicular to the mixer
shaft.
• To achieve successful mixing, the radial and longitudinal velocities imparted
to the liquid are maximised by baffles, off-centre or angled mixer shafts, or
angled blades
• To mix low-viscosity liquids adequately, turbulence must be induced
throughout the bulk of the liquid to entrain slow-moving parts within faster
moving parts
• A vortex should be avoided because adjoining layers of circulating liquid
travel at a similar speed and mixing does not take place. The liquids simply
rotate around the mixer.
Cont…

• In high-viscosity liquids, pastes or doughs, a different action is

needed. Here, mixing occurs by:
• kneading the material against the vessel wall or into other material
• folding unmixed food into the mixed part
• shearing to stretch the material

• Efficient mixing is achieved by creating and recombining fresh

surfaces in the food as often as possible.
• However, because the material does not easily flow, it is necessary
either to move the mixer blades throughout the vessel or to move
the food to the mixer blades.
 Cont…
• Most liquid foods are non-Newtonian and the most common types are
pseudoplastic, dilatant and viscoelastic.
• The design of equipment should enable thorough mixing without
overloading the motor or reducing the mixing efficiency
• Pseudoplastic foods (for example sauces) form a zone of thinned
material around a small agitator as mixing proceeds, and the bulk of the
food does not move. The higher the agitator speed, the more quickly the
zone becomes apparent.
• Planetary or gate mixers or roller mills are used to ensure that all food is
subjected to the mixing action
• Dilatant foods (for example cornflour and chocolate) should be mixed
with great care. If adequate power is not available in the mixer, the
increase in viscosity causes damage to drive mechanisms and shafts.
• A folding or cutting action, as for example in some planetary mixers or
paddle mixers, is suitable for this type of food
 Cont…
• Viscoelastic foods (for example bread dough) require a folding and
stretching action to shear the material. Suitable equipment includes
twin-shaft mixers and planetary mixers with intermeshing blades.
• The rate of mixing is characterised by a mixing index
• The mixing rate constant depends on the characteristics of both the
mixer and the liquids.
• The effect of the mixer characteristics on K is given by:
Cont…
• The power requirements of a mixer vary according to the nature,
amount and viscosity of the foods in the mixer, the position, type,
speed and size of the impeller.
• Liquid flow is defined by a series of dimensionless numbers: the
Reynolds number Re , the Froude number Fr and the Power number
Po
Cont…
 Mixing equipment
The selection of a correct type and size of mixer depends on the
• Type and amount of food being mixed
• Speed of operation needed to achieve the required degree of mixing
with minimum energy consumption.
Mixers are classified into types that are suitable for:
1. dry powders or particulate solids
2. low- or medium-viscosity liquids
3. high-viscosity liquids and pastes
4. dispersion of powders in liquids.

In general, mixing efficiency can be improved in both batch and continuous mixers
by mixing in several stages . For example, if 1 kg of an ingredient is to be mixed
into 500 kg of water, it is mixed more efficiently if it is first mixed with about 25 kg of
water and this is then mixed with the remainder of the water
 1. Mixers for dry powders and particulate
solids

• These mixers have two basic designs: the tumbling action of

rotating vessels and the positive movement of materials in screw
types.
• They are used for blending grains, flours and the preparation of
powdered mixes (for example cake mixes and dried soups).
 a. Tumbling mixers

•Tumbling mixers include drum, double-cone, Y-cone and V-cone mixers.

•They are filled approximately half full and rotate at speeds of 20–100 rev
min-1
•Optimum mixing for a particular blend of ingredients depends on the shape
and speed of the vessel, but speeds should be lower than the ‘critical speed’,
when centrifugal force exceeds gravity
•The efficiency of mixing is improved by internal baffles or counter-rotating
arms. These mixers are also used for coating applications
 b. Ribbon mixer

• Ribbon mixers have two or more thin narrow metal blades formed
into helices which counter-rotate in a closed hemispherical trough.
• The pitch of the ribbons is different so that one moves the material
rapidly forwards through the trough, and the second moves the
material slowly backwards, to produce a net forward movement of
material.
• This type of mixer is used for dry ingredients and small-particulate
foods.
 c. Vertical screw mixer
• Vertical-screw mixers have a rotating vertical screw, contained
within a conical vessel which orbits around a central axis to mix the
contents.
• This type of equipment is particularly useful for the incorporation of
small quantities of ingredients into a bulk of material.
 2. Mixers for low- or medium-viscosity
liquids

a. Paddle agitators
• A large number of designs of agitator are used to mix liquids in
unbaffled or baffled vessels
• The simplest paddle agitators are wide flat blades which measure
50–75% of the vessel diameter and rotate at 20–150 rev min-1.
• The blades are often pitched to promote longitudinal flow in unbaffled
tanks.
 b. Impeller agitators
• Impeller agitators consist of two or more blades attached to a
rotating shaft. The blades may be flat, angled (pitched) or curved.
c. Turbine agitators
• Turbine agitators are impeller agitators which have more than four
blades mounted together. The size is 30–50% of the diameter of the
vessel and they operate at 30–500 rev min-1.
• The blades are flat, pitched or curved to increase radial and
longitudinal flow.
• In addition blades may be mounted on a flat disc (the vaned disc
impeller), mounted vertically in baffled tanks.
• High shearing forces are developed at the edges of the impeller
blades and they are therefore used for premixing emulsions
Cont…

d. Propellor agitators
• Impellers which have short blades (less than a quarter of the
diameter of the vessel) are known as propeller agitators
• Alternatively, baffles are fitted to the vessel wall to increase shearing
of the liquids and to interrupt rotational flow, but care is necessary in
the design to ensure that the vessel may be adequately cleaned
• Propeller agitators operate at 400–1500 rev min-1 and are used for
blending miscible liquids, diluting concentrated solutions, preparing
syrups or brines and dissolving other ingredients.
comparison
 3. Dispersion of powders in liquids

• Powder-liquid contacting devices are short-residence-time mixers

which are used to incorporate powders into liquids.
• They operate by mixing a uniform stream of powder into sprays of
liquid and may also involve subsequent mixing by blades or rotors.
• Powders may also be mixed with liquids by pumping them through
pipes that are fitted internally with stationary mixing blades.
• Pumps mix ingredients by creating turbulent flow both in the pump
itself and in the pipework
• There are a large variety of pumps available for handling different
fluids and suspensions
 4. Mixers for high-viscosity liquids and
pastes

• More viscous liquids are mixed using slow-speed vertical-shaft

impellers such as multiple paddle (gate) agitators or, more
commonly, counter-rotating agitators to develop high shearing
forces.
• The basic design in this group is the anchor and gate agitator. It is
often used with heated mixing vessels, when the anchor is fitted with
scraper blades to prevent food from burning onto the hot surface.
• Some complex designs have arms on the gate which intermesh with
stationary arms on the anchor to increase the shearing action,
whereas others have inclined vertical blades to promote radial
movement in the food.
a. Anchor and gate agitator
 b. Z blade mixer
• The most common design of twin-shaft horizontal blade mixers is
the Z-blade (or sigma-blade) mixer
• This consists of two heavy-duty blades which are mounted
horizontally in a metal trough.
• The blades intermesh and rotate towards each other at either similar
or different speeds (14–60 rev min-1) to produce shearing forces
between the two blades and between the blades and the specially
designed trough base.
• These mixers use a substantial amount of power which is
dissipated in the product as heat.
• Mixing efficiency should therefore be high to reduce the mixing time.
If necessary the walls of the trough are jacketed for temperature
control.
Z blades
Twin z blade mixer
 c. Planetary mixer
• Planetary mixers are commonly found in both industrial and
domestic applications, and take their name from the path followed
by rotating blades (at 40–370 rev min-1), which include all parts of
the vessel in the mixing action.
• There is a small clearance between the blades and the vessel wall
• Gate blades are used for mixing pastes, blending ingredients and
preparation of spreads; hooks are used for dough mixing and
whisks are used for batter preparation.

Planetary mixer
 d. Screw conveyor mixer
• Screw conveyor mixers are typical of the type known as continuous
rotor-stator mixers.
• A horizontal rotor fits closely into a slotted stationary casing (or ‘barrel’).
• Single or twin screws are used to convey viscous foods and pastes
through the barrel and to force it through perforated plates or grids.
• The small clearance between the screw and the barrel wall causes a
shearing and kneading action.
• This is supplemented by shearing and mixing as the food emerges from
the end plate or grid.
• The screw may be interposed with pins to increase the shearing action.
This type of equipment is also used for extrusion and butter or margarine
manufacture .
Cont…

• Recent developments include automatic microprocessor control

with recipe storage for rapid change of products, process monitoring
and control and logging of process and product data
• These continuous mixers are used to produce doughs for crackers,
biscuits, breads, crisp breads, rusks, cakes and confectionery
products.
• A number of other designs, including butter churns, bowl
choppers and rollers are each used in specific applications to mix
foods, often with simultaneous homogenisation or size reduction.
• Roller mills and colloid mills are suitable for mixing high-viscosity
materials in addition to their function as size reduction equipment
 e. Static mixer
• More recently, static or ‘motionless’ mixers have been developed
for viscous materials and fluids. These mixers comprise a series of
precisely aligned static mixing elements contained within a housing
that is installed in the processing line.
• The elements split, rotate and integrate the food material in a
precisely defined pattern, according to the type of food to be mixed
and the degree of mixing required
• They operate using three mixing actions: radial mixing, flow division
and transient mixing.
Cont…

• In radial mixing, the fluid is deflected by the elements through a

series of 180º rotations which forces the fluid from the centre to the
wall of the pipe and back again.
• In flow division, the material is split into two components by the first
mixing element and then rotated through 180º before being split into
four streams by the second element and so on past succeeding
elements until the required degree of mixing has been achieved
• Transient mixing employs spaces between the elements to allow
relaxation of viscous material after successive radial mixings.
• It has been used in chocolate manufacture for the processing of
cocoa mass
• Static mixers eliminate the need for tanks, agitators and moving
parts, thus reducing capital costs and maintenance requirements
 Effect of mixing on foods

• The action of a mixer has no direct effect on either the nutritional

quality or the shelf life of a food but may have an indirect effect by
allowing components of the mixture to react together.
• The nature and extent of the reaction depend on the components
involved but may be accelerated if significant heat is generated in
the mixer.
• In general, mixing has a substantial effect on sensory qualities and
functional properties of foods.
• For example, gluten development is promoted during dough
making by the stretching and folding action which aligns, uncoils
and extends protein molecules and develops the strength of the
gluten structure to produce the desired texture in the bread.
• The main effects are to increase the uniformity of products by
evenly distributing ingredients throughout the bulk.
Thank you