Chapter Two: Basic Concepts

of Logic

We will discuss about concepts and

terminology every student should know
about logic.
1.1 What is Logic?
A science, organized body of knowledge, that
study(observation, understanding, identifying
different parts, evaluating) about arguments.

The purpose of logic is to develop a system of methods and

principles that we may use as a criterion for evaluating the
argument of others and as a guide in constructing argument of our
own.

Principles – theories
Scientific Methods
Guide

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1.2. What is Argument(reasoning)? A passage which
express reasoning.

It is a group of statements one or more of which

are claimed to provide support for or reasons to
believe one of the others.

Statement? A sentences which has truth value.

There is a claim
There is evidence or reasons

The purpose of logic, as the science that evaluates

arguments, is thus to develop methods and techniques
that allow us to distinguish good arguments from bad .

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1.2.1. Parts of argument: premises, conclusion,
reasoning.

The statements that make up the argument divide into

premises, conclusions and reasoning.

Premises are statements which offer reasons or provide eivdence to

prove or show the truth of the conclusions.

Conclusion is the statement which express the claim of the argument

and supported by premises.

Reasoning: the link or the connection between premises and conclusions.

The process of thinking about the conclusion in logical way.
Whether the conclusion follows from the premises.

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 1.3. Identify the premises and the conclusion in arguments?

EXAMPLE 1 Example 2
• All musicians are famous. • Some musicians are women.
• Tedy afro is a musician. • Tedy afro is a musician.
• Therefore Tedy afro is • Thus he is a woman.
famous.

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 1.4. How do we differentiate premises from
conclusions?
 Frequently, arguments contain certain indicator words that provide clues in identifying
premises and conclusion. Some typical conclusion indicators are:

 Therefore , accordingly entails that

 wherefore we may conclude hence
 Thus it must be that it follows that
 consequently for this reason implies that
 we may infer so, as a result

 Whenever a statement follows one of these indicators, it can usually be identified as the
conclusion.
Example:
Tortured prisoners will say anything just to relieve the pain. Consequently, torture is not a reliable
method of interrogation.

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 1.4. How do we differentiate premises from conclusions?

 If an argument does not contain a conclusion indicator, it may contain a premise

indicator. Some typical premise indicators are

 since in that seeing that

 as indicated by may be inferred from for the reason that
 because inasmuch as
 For given that owing to

 Any statement following one of these indicators can usually be identified as a

premise.
Example:
Expectant mothers should never use recreational drugs, since the use of these drugs
can jeopardize the development of the foetus.

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 1.5. How do we identify premises from conclusion if there are no
indicator words?

 Sometimes an argument contains no indicators. When this occurs, the reader/listener must ask
himself or herself such questions as:
 What single statement is claimed (implicitly) to follow from the others?

 What is the arguer trying to prove?

 What is the main point in the passage?

The answers to these questions should point to the conclusion.

Example:
# The space program deserves increased expenditures in the years ahead. Not only does the

national defense depend upon it, but the program will more than pay for itself in terms of
technological spinoffs. Furthermore, at current funding levels the program cannot fulfil its
anticipated potential.

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2.1. Recognizing arguments: What is argumentive passages?

 There are different kinds of passage. Some passages are arguments and others are not.
 In this section we are going to discuss about some techniques that will help us to identify
argumentative passage from non argumentative passages.
 A passage contain argument if it tries to prove something; if it does not do so it does not
contain argument. Two conditions must be fulfilled for a passage to purport to prove
something:
 1. At least one of the statements must claim to present evidence or reasons.
 2. There must be a claim that the alleged evidence or reasons supports or implies something
 From this we can conclude that every kinds of argument makes two types of claims: factual
claim and inferential claim.
 Factual claim: Whether the premises or the evidences are true based on fact.
 Inferential claim: Whether there is reasoning expressed by the argument
 There are two types of inferential claim: explicit and implicit.
 Explicit inferential claim asserted by premise or conclusion indicator words.
 An implicit inferential claim exists if there is an inferential relationship between the
statements in a passage, but the passage contains no indicator words .

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2.1. Recognizing arguments: What is argument?

Sometimes identifying whether a certain passage is argument is difficult: In

deciding whether a passage is an argument, keep an eye out for
(1)indicator words
(2) the presence of an inferential relationship between
the statements.

To assist in distinguishing passages that contain arguments

from those that do not, let us now investigate some typical
kinds of non arguments.

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Recognizing argument : What is paragraph?

 What is a passage: a passage can be define as a group of paragraph dealing with a single
subject.
 Paragraph is a section of a passage consists of several sentences dealing with a single subject.
 The sentences in a paragraph divided into topic sentences and minor sentences.
 Topic sentences: it is the sentences that express the main ideas of the paragraph.
 Minor sentences: they are sentences which support the topic sentence.
 This is a link or connection between minor sentences and major sentences.
 There are different kinds of passage depend on how the minor sentences and the major
sentence is linked.
 To identify what kind of passage is a certain passage we have to identify the topic sentence
and the minor sentences and their relationships.
 In the case of argument the topic sentence is conclusion and the minor sentences are premises
and the relation is that premises proof the conclusion.

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Simple non inferential claim: Non- argumentative
passages
 Simple non inferential passages are unproblematic passages that lack a claim that anything is
being proved.
 1. A warning is a form of expression that is intended to put someone on guard against a
dangerous or detrimental situation.
# Eg. If you do not study hard, you will fail the course.
 2. A piece of advice is a form of expression that makes a recommendation about some future
decision or course of conduct.
 Eg. You should keep few things in mind before you choose a department. First try to
understand your own interest and inclinations. Second try to assess the subject matter of the
department. Third, work hard to get grade points that the department of your choice would
require.
 3. A statement of belief or opinion is an expression about what someone happens to believe or
think about something.
# Eg. We believe that our company must develop and produce outstanding products that will
perform a great service or fulfil a need for our customers. We believe that our business must be
run at an adequate profit and that the services and products we offer must be better than those
offered by competitors.

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Simple non inferential claim

 4. Loosely associated statements may be about the same general subject, but they lack a claim
that one of them is proved by the others.
 5. A report consists of a group of statements that convey information about some topic or event.

# Eg. Even though more of the world is immunized than ever before, many old diseases have proven
quite resilient in the face of changing population and environmental conditions, especially in the
developing world. New diseases, such as AIDS, have taken their toll in both the North and the
South.

 6. Expository Passages is a kind of discourse that begins with a topic sentence followed by one
or more sentences that develop the topic sentence.
 Eg. There are three familiar states of matter: solid, liquid, and gas. Solid objects ordinarily
maintain their shape and volume regardless of their location. A liquid occupies a definite volume,
but assumes the shape of the occupied portion of its container. A gas maintains neither shape nor
volume. It expands to fill completely whatever container it is in.

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Simple non inferential claim

 7. Illustrations: It consists of a statement about a certain subject combined with a reference to

one or more specific instances intended to show what something means or how it is done.
# Eg. Chemical elements, as well as compounds, can be represented by molecular formulas.
Thus, oxygen is represented by “O2,”water by “H2O,” and sodium chloride by NaCl.

 8. Explanations is a group of statements that purports to shed light on some event or

phenomenon. The event or phenomenon in question is usually accepted as a matter of fact.
 Eg. The sky appears blue from the earth’s surface because light rays from the sun are
scattered by particles in the atmosphere.

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3.1. Types of argument : Deduction and induction
3.1

Based on the nature of reasoning arguments divided into two: Probabilistic reasoning and absolute reasoning.
What is probabilistic reasoning? Absolute reasoning?
An argument which expresses probabilistic reasoning is inductive argument and an argument which expresses

absolute reasoning is deductive argument.

A deductive argument is an argument in which the arguer claims that it is impossible for the conclusion to be

false given that the premises are true. In such arguments the conclusion is claimed to follow necessarily from
the premises.
An inductive argument is an argument in which the arguer claims that it is improbable that the conclusion be

false given that the premises are true. In these arguments the conclusion is claimed to follow only probably
from the premises.
Examples :

Red foxes are similar to dogs.

Dogs serve as a pet.
Thus probably red foxes might serve as pet.
Red foxes are member of dog family.
All dog families are carnivores.
Consequently, it is necessarily true that red foxes are carnivores
.

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3.2. How do we identify inductive argument from deductive argument?

 The distinction between inductive and deductive arguments lies in the strength of an
argument’s inferential claim. In other words, the distinction lies in how strongly the
conclusion is claimed to follow from the premises.
 Three criteria that influence our decision whether a certain argument is inductive or deductive
are :
 (1) the occurrence of special indicator words
 (2) the actual strength of the inferential link between premises and conclusion
 (3) the form or style of argumentation the arguer uses.

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I. The occurrence of special indicator words

Different kinds of indicator words used to connect premises of inductive argument and premises
of deductive arguments.
 The following words commonly used to connect premises and conclusion in inductive
arguments. Probably, improbable, plausible, implausible, likely, unlikely, reasonable to
conclude.
 The following words commonly used to connect premises and conclusion in deductive
arguments. Necessarily, absolutely, certainly, definitely.
# Crater Lake, the deepest lake in the United States, was caused by a huge volcanic eruption
7700 years ago. Since human beings have lived around the mountain for more than 10,000
years, it is likely that people witnessed that eruption.
 The Ras Dashen is higher than Mount Gugu, and Mount Gugu is higher than Mount
Chercher. It is definitely true that the Ras Dshen is higher than Mount Chercher.

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II. The actual strength of the inferential link between premises and conclusion

 If the conclusion actually does follow with strict necessity from the premises, the argument
is clearly deductive. In such an argument it is impossible for the premises to be true and the
conclusion false.
 If the conclusion does not follow with strict necessity but does follow probably, it is often best
to consider the argument inductive.

 All sales woman are sociable. Chaltu is a sales woman. Thus Chaltu is sociable.

 Most sales women are sociable. Chaltu is a sales woman. Thus Chaltu is sociable.
 In the first argument the conclusion follows strictly from the premises.

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III. The form or style of argumentation the arguer uses

 Occasionally, an argument contains no indicator words, and the conclusion does not follow
either necessarily or probably from the premises; in other words, it does not follow at all. This
situation points up the need for the third factor to be taken into account, which is the character
or form of argumentation the arguer uses.
 Many arguments have a distinctive character or form that indicates that the premises are

supposed to provide absolute support for the conclusion.

Deductive Argument Forms
 An argument based on mathematics is an argument in which the conclusion depends on
some purely arithmetic or geometric computation or measurement.
Eg. Because triangle A is congruent with triangle B, and triangle A is isosceles, it follows that
triangle B is isosceles.
An argument from definition is an argument in which the conclusion is claimed to depend
merely upon the definition of some word or phrase used in the premise or conclusion.

Eg. Cholesterol is endogenous with humans. Therefore, it is manufactured inside the human body.

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III. The form or style of argumentation the arguer uses

 A syllogism, in general, is an argument consisting of exactly two premises and one

conclusion.
 Categorical syllogism is a syllogism in which each statement begins with one of the words

“all,” “no,” or “some.”

Eg. All humans are mammals. All mammals are animals Therefore all humans are animals.
 A hypothetical syllogism is a syllogism having a conditional statement for one or both of its

premises.
Eg. If Alexander the Great died from typhoid fever, then he became infected in India. Alexander
the Great did die from typhoid fever. Therefore, he became infected in India.
 A disjunctive syllogism is a syllogism having a disjunctive statement (i.e., an “either . . . or . .

.” statement) for one of its premises.

Eg. Either classical culture originated in Greece, or it originated in Egypt. Classical culture did
not originate in Egypt. Therefore, classical culture originated in Greece.

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Inductive Argument Forms

 Inductive arguments are such that the content of the conclusion is in some way intended to “go
beyond” the content of the premises. The premises of such an argument typically deal with some
subject that is relatively familiar, and the conclusion then moves beyond this to a subject that is less
familiar or that little is known about.
 A prediction is an argument that proceeds from our knowledge of the past to a claim about the

future. Nearly everyone realizes that the future cannot be known with certainty; thus, whenever an
argument makes a prediction about the future, one is usually justified in considering the argument
inductive.
Eg. The rainfall in Seattle has been more than 15 inches every year for the past thirty years.
Therefore, the rainfall next year will probably be more than 15 inches.

 An argument from analogy is an argument that depends on the existence of an analogy, or

similarity, between two things or states of affairs. Because of the existence of this analogy, a certain
condition that affects the better-known thing or situation is concluded to affect the similar, lesser-
known thing or situation.
Eg. The Encylopaedia Britannica has an article on symbiosis. The Encyclopedia Americana, like the
Britannica, is an excellent reference work. Therefore, the Americana probably also has an article on
symbiosis.

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  A generalization is an argument that proceeds from the knowledge of a selected sample to some claim
about the whole group. Because the members of the sample have a certain characteristic, it is argued
that all the members of the group have that same characteristic.
 An argument from authority is an argument that concludes something is true because a presumed
expert or witness has said that it is.

Eg. World-renowned physicist Stephen Hawking says that the condition of the universe at the instant of the
Big Bang was more highly ordered than it is today. In view of Hawking’s stature in the scientific community,
we should conclude that this description of the universe is correct.

 An argument based on signs is an argument that proceeds from the knowledge of a sign to a claim
about the thing or situation that the sign symbolizes.

Eg. The plaque on the leaning tower of Pisa says that Galileo performed experiments there with
falling objects. It must be the case that Galileo did indeed perform those experiments there.

 A causal inference is an argument that proceeds from knowledge of a cause to a claim about an effect,
or, conversely, from knowledge of an effect to a claim about a cause.

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4. Evaluating arguments: Validity, Truth, Soundness, Strength, Cogency

 This section introduces the central ideas and terminology required to evaluate arguments.
 We have seen that every argument makes two basic claims: factual claim and inferential
claim.
 What is a claim: to propose that something is true or false.
 Inferential claim: the claim that whether the premises really support the conclusion.
 Factual claim: the claim that the premises present genuine evidence, or are true.
 To determine whether an argument is good or bad , we have to evaluate both the inferential
claim and the factual claim.
 In this section we will evaluate both deductive and inductive arguments.

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Evaluating deductive arguments: Validity and
Soundness.

 To determine whether deductive argument is good or bad, we have to assess both the
inferential claim and factual claim.
 Validity: validity basically measures the inferential claim of a deductive argument.
 If the inferential claim is good the argument will be valid; if the inferential claim is bad the
argument will be invalid.
 Valid means the conclusion is reasonable; invalid means the conclusion is unreasonable.
 Valid deductive argument is an argument in which it is impossible for the conclusion to be
false given that the premises are true. In these arguments the conclusion follows with strict
necessity from the premises.
 Invalid deductive argument is a deductive argument in which it is possible for the
conclusion to be false given that the premises are true. In these arguments the conclusion does
not follow with strict necessity from the premises.
 Eg. Monkeys like banana. Lucy is a monkey. Thus lucy likes banana.
 All organisms are made of cells. Humans are organisms. Therefore, humans are made of cells.

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Evaluating deductive arguments: Validity and
Soundness.
 Eg. All soft drinks are beverage. Coca cola is a soft drink. Thus coca cola is beverage.
 All banks are finical institutions. Wegagen is a bank. Thus Wegagen is a finical institutions.
 All banks are finical institutions. Awash Insurance is a finical institutions. Thus awash
insurance is a bank.

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Soundness
 Soundness measure the factual claims of a deductive argument.
 If all the premises of a deductive argument are true, the argument will be sound. But if one of
the premises are false, the argument will be unsound.
 A sound argument is a deductive argument that is valid and has all true premises. Both
conditions must be met for an argument to be sound, and if either is missing the argument is
unsound.
 Unsound argument is a deductive argument that is invalid, has one or more false premises, or
both.

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Inductive Arguments: Strength and Cogency

 Strength measures the inferential claims of an inductive argument. If the conclusion of an

inductive argument is reasonable , the argument is strong. If the conclusion is unreasonable it
is weak.
 strong inductive argument is an inductive argument in which it is improbable that the
conclusion be false given that the premises are true. In such arguments, the conclusion does in
fact follow probably from the premises.
 Conversely, a weak inductive argument is an argument in which the conclusion does not
follow probably from the premises, even though it Is claimed to.
 Eg. All/few dinosaur bones discovered to this day have been at least 50 million years- old.
Therefore, probably the next dinosaur bone to be found will be at least 50 million years old.
 All meteorites found to this day have contained sugar. Therefore, probably the next meteorite
to be found will contain sugar.
 Cogency measures the factual claim of inductive arguments. If the premises of an inductive
argument are all true, the argument is cogent. If one of the premises is false , it is uncogent.

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Summary

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