UNDER GROUND METAL MINING ASSIGNM

Submitted to: TOPIC:- SUPPORT

Submitted by: SYSTEM
MR .M. D.PATEL VIKRAMADITYA KUMAR

VIVEK SINHA
DURGESH KURREY
SWAPNIL THAWAIT, DHEERAJ SINGH, PRADEEP CHANDEL, PRADEEP
KUMAR, SANDEEP BHAGAT, RAJU TANNDI, SHAILESH RANGRARI,LOKAS
GROUTing
&

SHOTCRETE
Introduction
There are three main phases in the “life” of an underground mine where
some form of grouting for the control of groundwater may be required:
1) Development & Commissioning – during the construction of shafts,
surface drifts & preliminary underground developments to gain access to
the ore body.
2) Production/Operations – dealing with groundwater problems at the
production face and when driving additional underground roadways,
shafts, etc.
3) “Shut-down” – initial sealing of shafts and roadways and continuing
remedial work as necessary.
Within these general areas different forms of grouting will be
required to solve the various groundwater problems that are
encountered.
Purpose of Grouting
Although grouting has a number of quite different
applications, the main purpose is always to eliminate
or reduce the flow of groundwater into an existing or
proposed underground excavation. Grouting is only
one of several methods of ground treatment for
excluding water which have to be assessed on their
respective merits for each situation. However,
grouting does provide the benefits of a permanent
or at least semi-permanent, ground treatment and
the bonus of increased stability in some situations,
as compared with purely temporary expedients such
as dewatering and ground freezing.
Grouting Methods &
materials
 Permeation Grouting
In permeation grouting the grout material penetrates the
interconnected porous structure of the soil or rock which may
compromise both the intergranular voids & the fissure network. Whilst
in most instances the fissure permeability represents the major
contribution to the total permeability of the ground and, hence the
main agent for transmitting groundwater flow to the excavation, there
are instances where intergranular permeability is equally important.
Hydrofracture Grouting
In both intergranular and fissure the injection is carried out at
pressures insufficient to disturb the ground structure. The grout
advances steadily displacing air and water outwards with the
predominant direction of flow being that offering the least resistance,
ie. the path of highest permeability. In some circumstances, usually in
relatively shallow alluvials, it is permissible to use hydrofracture
grouting where deliberate overpressuring is used to either widen
existing fissures or create new fissures. This procedure has the
advantage of rapidly creating direct access through low permeability
ground to a more permeable and treatable zone from the widely
spaced array of injection holes.
 Squeeze Grouting
The squeeze grouting technique is used to apply high pressures to
the ground to squeeze out excess pore water and consolidate the
unstable material by increasing its density and shear strength.
Consolidation is achieved by either forming a grout “bulb” which does
not penetrate the soil or preferably by deliberate hydrofracture using a
grout of limited capability to penetrate far.
 Shotcrete

Shotcrete is the generic name for cement, sand and fine

aggregate concretes which are applied pneumatically and
compacted dynamically under high velocity.
Dry mix shotcrete
As illustrated in Figure 1, the dry shotcrete components, which
may be slightly predampened to reduce dust, are fed into a hopper
with continuous agitation. Compressed air is introduced through a
rotating barrel or feed bowl to convey the materials in a continuous
stream through the delivery hose. Water is added to the mix at the
nozzle. Gunite, a proprietary name for dry-sprayed mortar used in
the early 1900's, has fallen into disuse in favour of the more general
term shotcrete.
Wet mix shotcrete
In this case the shotcrete components and the water are mixed
(usually in a truck mounted mixer) before delivery into a positive
displacement pumping unit, which then delivers the mix hydraulically to
the nozzle where air is added to project the material onto the rock
surface.
Shotcrete applications

The quality of the final shotcrete product is closely related to the

application procedures used. These procedures include: surface
preparation, nozzling technique, lighting, ventilation,
communications, and crew training. Shotcrete should not be applied
directly to a dry, dusty or frozen rock surface. The work area is usually
sprayed with an air-water jet to remove loose rock and dust from the
surface to be shot. The damp rock will create a good surface on
which to bond the initial layer of shotcrete paste.
 The nozzleman commonly starts low on the wall and moves
the nozzle in small circles working his way up towards the back,
or roof. Care must be taken to avoid applying fresh materials on
top of rebound or oversprayed shotcrete.In fig. Note that the distance
between the nozzle and the rock surface is approximately one metre.
• It is essential that the air supply is consistent and has sufficient
capacity to ensure the delivery of a steady stream of high velocity shotcrete
to the rock face. Shooting distances are ideally about 1 to 1.5 metres. Holding
the nozzle further fromthe rock face will result in a lower velocity flow of
materials which leads to poor compaction and a higher proportion of
rebound. A well-trained operator can produce excellent quality shotcrete
manually, when the work area is well-lit and well-ventilated, and when the
crew members are in good communication with each other using prescribed
hand signals or voice activated FM radio headsets. However, this is a very
tiring and uncomfortable job, especially for
overhead shooting, and compact robotic systems are increasingly being used
to permit the operator to control the nozzle remotely.
 Plastic pipes used to provide drainage for a shotcrete
layer applied to a rock mass with water-bearing joints.
Rock mass Rock mass Support Shotcrete application
description behaviour requirements

Massive No spalling, None. None.

metamorphic or slabbing or failure.
igneous rock .
Low stress
conditions.

Massive Surfaces of some Sealing surface Apply 25 mm thickness of plain shotcrete to

sedimentary shales, siltstones, or to prevent permanent surfaces as soon as possible after
rock. Low stress claystones may slaking. excavation. Repair shotcrete damage due to
conditions. slake as a result of blasting.
moisture content
change.

Massive rock Fault gouge may be Provision of Remove weak material to a depth equal to
with single wide weak and erodible support and width of fault or shear zone and grout rebar
fault or shear and may cause surface sealing into adjacent sound rock. Weldmesh can be
zone. stability problems in in vicinity of used if required to provide temporary rockfall
adjacent jointed weak fault of support. Fill void with plain shotcrete. Extend
rock. shear zone. steel fibre reinforced shotcrete laterally for at
least width of gouge
zone.
Rock mass Rock mass Support Shotcrete application
description behaviour requirements
Massive Surface slabbing, Retention of broken Apply 50 mm shotcrete over weldmesh
metamorphic spalling and rock and control of anchored behind bolt faceplates,or apply 50
or igneous rock. Possible rockburst rock mass dilation. mm of steel fibre reinforced shotcrete on rock
High stress damage. and install rockbolts with faceplates; then
conditions. apply second 25 mm shotcrete layer.
Extend shotcrete application down sidewalls
where required.
Massive Surface slabbing, Retention of broken Apply 75 mm layer of fibre reinforced
sedimentary spalling and rock and control of shotcrete directly on clean rock.
rock. High Possible squeezing squeezing. Rockbolts or dowels are also needed
stress in shales and soft for additional support.
conditions. rocks.
Apply 75 mm Potential for Provision of Apply 50 mm of steel fibre reinforced
layer of fibre wedges or blocks support in addition shotcrete to rock surfaces on which
reinforced to fall or slide due to that joint traces are exposed.
shotcrete to gravity loading. available from
directly on rockbolts or cables.
clean rock.
Rockbolts or
dowels are also
needed for
additional
support.
Rock mass Rock mass Support Shotcrete application
description behaviour requirements

Sedimentary rock Potential for wedges Provision of support Apply 50 mm of steel fibre
with a few widely or blocks to fall or in addition to that reinforced shotcrete on rock surface
spaced bedding slide due to gravity available from on which discontinuity traces are
planes and joints. loading. Bedding rockbolts or cables. exposed,with particular attention to
Low stress plane exposures may Sealing of weak bedding plane traces.
conditions. deteriorate in time. bedding plane
exposures.

Jointed Combined structural Retention of broken Apply 75 mm plain shotcrete over

metamorphic or and stress controlled rock and control of weldmesh anchored behind bolt
igneous rock. failures around rock mass dilation. faceplates or apply 75 mm of steel
High stress opening boundary. fibre reinforced shotcrete on rock,
conditions. install rockbolts with faceplates and
then apply second 25 mm shotcrete
layer Thicker shotcrete layers may be
required at high stress
concentrations.

Bedded and Slabbing, spalling Control of rock mass Apply 75 mm of steel fibre
jointed and possibly failure and squeezing. reinforced shotcrete to clean rock
weak sedimentary squeezing. surfaces as soon as possible, install
rock. High stress rockbolts, with faceplates, through
conditions. shotcrete, apply second 75 mm
shotcrete layer.
Rock mass Rock mass Support Shotcrete application
description behaviour requirements
Highly jointed Ravelling of small Prevention of Apply 50 mm of steel fibre reinforced
metamorphic or wedges and blocks Progressive shotcrete on clean rock surface in roof
igneous rock. defined by ravelling. of excavation. Rockbolts or dowels may be
Low stress intersecting joints. needed for additional support for large blocks.
conditions.
Highly jointed Bed separation in Control of bed Rockbolts or dowels required to control bed
and bedded wide span separation and separation. Apply 75 mm of fibre reinforced
sedimentary excavations and ravelling. shotcrete to bedding plane traces before
rock. Low stress ravelling of bedding bolting.
conditions. traces in inclined
faces.
Heavily jointed Squeezing and Control of rock Apply 100 mm of steel fibre reinforced
igneous or 'plastic' flow of rock mass failure and shotcrete as soon as possible and install
metamorphic mass around dilation. rockbolts, with face-plates, through shotcrete.
rock, opening. Apply additional 50 mm of shotcrete if
conglomerates or required. Extend support down sidewalls if
cemented necessary.
rockfill. High
stress
conditions.
Rock mass Rock mass Support Shotcrete application
description behaviour requirements

Heavily jointed Squeezing and Control of rock mass Apply 50 mm of steel fibre reinforced
sedimentary rock 'plastic' flow of failure and dilation. shotcrete as soon as possible, install
with clay coated rock lattice girders or light steel sets, with
surfaces. mass around invert struts where required, then more
High stress opening. Clay rich steel fibre reinforced shotcrete to cover
conditions. rocks may swell. sets or girders. Forepoling or spiling
may be required to stabilise face ahead
of excavation. Gaps may be left in
final shotcrete to allow for movement
resulting from squeezing or swelling.
Gap should be closed once opening is
stable.

Mild rockburst Spalling, slabbing Retention of broken Apply 50 to 100 mm of shotcrete over
conditions in and mild rock and control of mesh or cable lacing which is firmly
massive rock rockbursts. failure propagation. attached to the rock surface by means
subjected to high of yielding rockbolts or cablebolts.
stress conditions.
When designing a shotcrete program the following issues need to taken into
consideration:-
· Amount of shotcreting required;
· Shotcrete strength;
· Shotcrete thickness;
· Presence of groundwater (eg. quantity, chemistry, pressure);
Surface Rock Support for Underground Mines 7
Code of Practice
· Need for drainage of groundwater from behind the shotcrete;
· Water quality (potable);
· Type of shotcrete mix (wet or dry);
· Use of microsilica;
· Admixtures (plasticisers, etc);
· Accelerators (for wet mix);
· Fibre reinforcement;
· Curing (external or internal);
· Testing and monitoring;
· Correct shotcrete application.
CODE OF
TIMBERING
CODE OF TIMBERING RULES

CODE OF TIMBERING RULE ARE VARIES IN DIFFERENT –DIFFERENT

METHOD.
1.FOR OPEN STOPE AREAS
2.FOR BREAST STOPING
3. FOR ROOM AND PILLAR
4.FOR UNDERGROUND MANAGEMENT MINES
a. FLAT CUT AND FILL METHOD
b. SQUARE SET METHOD
5.FOR UNDERGROUND URANIUM MINES
FOR OPEN STOPE AREAS

1. Stulls shall be set at a maximum of 2 metres between the same row and also
between row of stulls.the front row is not more than 4.2 metres from the face.
2. Cogs or pigstys shall be set at all entrance to the stoping areas and also at a
interval of not more than 4.5 metres for working height 3 metres.

for drives in ore body:-

3.Within a distance of 30 metres from the block ,stulls shall be set at a maximum
interval of 1.5 metres between row and same row in all the drives and winzes.
4.Cogs and pigysts shall be set at all junction of the drives and winzes within a
distance of 30 metres from the block under extraction where height is more
than 3 metres ,8 closely set stulls may be used in place of stulls.
5. The width of ledge used for the top and foot of the stulls shall not be less
than the diameter of the prop.
6.Where floor ore is being taken ,stulls shall not be left on the strumps and the
shorter stulls shall immediately be replaced with longer stulls.
7.The timber used for the construction of the cogs or pigysts shall not be less
than 1.2 metres in length and shall have at least two opposite side joggeled
flat to provide suitable bearing surface.
• 8.cogs and pigysts and stulls shall be kept tight against the hanging wall
and set on a properly formed base.
• 9.additional support is erected when necessary.
FOR BREAST STOPING

1. Stulls shall be set at a maximum interval of 1.5 metres between

stulls in the same row and a maximum interval of 2.4 metres
between the row of the stulls .the front row being not more than 3.9
metre from the face.
2. The stulls in two adjacent row shall be staggered.
3. The planes of faults or slips and hanging or parted frames shall be
substantially supported by cogs ,pigysts,chockmats or stulls before
person are employed at the face.
4.Cogs or chockmates shall be set at interval of not more than 4.5 metres in
the area under actual extraction.
5.The support in the area beyod 18 metres from the face may be withdraw if
they do not show any sign of weighting.
6.The abondened area beyond 18 metres of the face shall be kept fenced and
no person shall be allowed to go beyond the fencing.

For drives,winzes and raises:

7. The DRIVES,WINZES AND RAISES WITHIN A DISTANCE OF 30 metres from
the block under extraction shall be supported by one or more row of stulls or
bars at a maximum interval of 3 metres in the same row and a maximum
interval of 3 metres in the same row of stulls.
8.Cogs or chockmates shall be set at all junction of the drive,winze and raise
within a distance of 30 metres from the block under extraction.
9.The width of ledge out for the top and foot of the stulls shall not be less the
diametres of stulls.
10.cogs,pigysts,chockmates ,bars,and stulls shall be kept tight against the
roof and set on a properly formed base.
For room and pillar method

1.The working area of stope shall be supported by row of roof bolts.

2.Roof bolts shall be set at a maximum of 1.2 m interval between the
roof bolts in the same row and a maximum interval of 1.2 m between
the two row.
3.Roof bolts in adjacent shall be staggered.
4.At no time shall the front row of roof bolts be more than 3.0 metres
from the face before next round of blasting is taken.
5.The roof bolts may be withdrawn during the course of filling.

Post pillar method::

6.support of the working area shall be provided with roof bolts and
pillars.
7.Roof bolts shall be set at a maximum interval of 1.5 metre between
roof bolts in the same row and 1.5 metres between the two rows.
8.At no time shall the front row of rock bolts be more than 5 metres
from the face before it is advanced any further.
9.The roof bolt may with drawn during the course of filling.
4.Flat cut and fill method

1.The back of all cut and fill method stopes shall be supported with pigysts at a
distance of 3 m between pigysts in the same row and 1.8 m between the last row of
pigysts and the wall ,nearest row of pigysts being not more than 4 m from the face.
2.Between the face and the last row of pigysts ,the back shall be supported with
props at interval of not more than 1.5 m.
3.The lids and wedge ,used with the prop shall have a width not less than the
diameter of the prop,a thickness of not less than 6 cm,and a length of not less than .
5 m.
4. The prop shall not set on packing.a flat base piece ,not less than 5 cm thick, 25 cm
wide,and .75 m long long shall be used.
5.The timber used for the construction of pigysts shall not be less than 1.2 m in length
and at least two opposite sides joggled flat so as to provide a suitable bearing
surface.
6.Weak patches of back and hanging wall shall be supported by additional support of
pigysts and props.
Square set method

Where the ore bed is weak and friable so the stope block is not self
supporting .it shall be systematically supported with square set of the
approved size.
Erection of sets:-
a.As the set used for cap butting sets ,the cap shall be laid at right angles
to the general strike of the ore body ,because it has to give maximum
support of the walls.
b.Durind dressing .timber form a proper joint.
c.All open dressing shall be tightly blocked and wedged to prevent sideway
movement.
d.Side lagging board shall be placed from post to post and the gap
between the lagging board and the walls shall be tightly packed either
with the junks or fill material.
• Stengthing of set :-
a.Angle braces –they shall be fixed to reinforce the sets against the side
pressure.
b.Doubling will be done in necessary condition.

Underhand square set:-

1.Before taking up underhanding operation a minimum of two numbers
hanger shall be fixed on each horizontal member.
b.A pair of stringers shall be erected before a set is underhand.
c.As soon as possible,additional support with pick-up of boom shall be
provided.
d.Underhanding of more than three sets in a row shall be carried in steeper
down pattern and with overlapping pattern of stringers.
5.FOR UNDERGROUND URANIUM MINES

• Cut and fill stope:-

• 1.after each round of blasting in the stope the back shall be througly dressed.
• 2 the maximum span between the fill and the back shall not exceed 4.5 m at any
time.
• 3 the bolt shall be fixed in the back and hanging wall of the stope.
• 4 the length of bolt shall be not less than 1.5 m.
• 5 the back shall be supported by the bolt at 2*2 m interval.
Open stopes:-
1.Stulls shall be set at a maximum interval of 2 m between the rows of stulls,the
front row being not more than 4.2 m from the face.
2.Cogs and pigysts shall be set at all entrances to the stoping areas and also at
interval of not more than 4.5 m in the area under stoping where working height
is 3 m or less.
BACK FILL
BACK FILL INTRODUCTION

• Backfill is an increasingly important component of underground mining

operations around the world. This will give a brief overview of the
current application of mining with backfill technology, focusing on this
operations. In the context of this summit, the disposal of mine tailings
underground not only reduces the environmental impact but also
provides the base of an engineering material which can be used to
improve both the ground conditions and the economics of mining.
backfill systems can significantly enhance a mining operation. By
contrast, badly engineered and poorly run backfill can be a serious
impediment to the mine and, worst of all, compromise safety.
Back fill
• Backfill refers to any waste material that is placed into voids mined underground for
the purposes of either disposal or to perform some engineering function.
• Waste materials used include waste development rock, deslimed and whole mill
tailings, quarried and crushed aggregate, and alluvial sand. Other exotic backfill
types used overseas includeice and salt.
• The waste materials are often placed with very lean cement or other pozzolanic
binders to improve the strength properties.
• Gravity based delivery methods are utilised for slurry based systems with the dense
tailings slurry being delivered by pipeline to the disposal point in the stope.

• These pipelines can range from low pressure (less than 1MPa) turbulent flow
systems for deslimed slurries to high pressure (greater than 5MPa) laminar flow
systems for pastefill.
• Sometimes backfill only acts as a void filler and needs only sufficient strength to
preventany form of remobilisation.
• Where backfill is used as an engineering material it requires sufficient strength be
exposed by ore pillar mining in tall vertical faces or undercuts.

• Lean cement addition is used to generate unconfined compressive strengths ranging

from 0.5 to 4 mpa.
• The other essential requirement is that backfill must be of low cost.
Typical costs ofbackfill range from $2 to $20 per cubic metre, depending
on the duty required.
• These costs can be a significant contribution to the operating costs of
the mine.
• Where cemented backfills are used, these costs tend to be between 10
and 20% of the total operating cost of the mine and cement represents
up to 75% of that cost.
8 BACKFILL TYPES AND MATERIALS
The three back fill types that will be discussed are:
· Hydraulic backfill :
Deslimed mill tailings slurries, with densities raised toover
70%Cw (solids by weight). The coarser fractions areplaced
underground as hydraulic backfill and the slimes rejected
to the surface dam.

· Paste backfill : -
Total mill tailings filtered or thickened to around 80%Cwto
which cement and water is then added to achieve
therequired rheological and strength characteristics.
Anyrejects to the dam are at the full tailings sizing range.

· Rock backfill :-
Waste rock from surface or underground and crushed to
a typical top size of around 40mm. This can be placed as
is or with cemented hydraulic backfill slurry or cement
water slurry.
•HYDRAULIC BACKFILL
1.Hydraulic backfill is produced by cycloning of mill tailings slurries to produce a coarse
dense underflow.Typical specifications of hydraulic backfill are: Not more than 10% by
weight of size fraction less than 10m (micrometres) in size. This ensures that acceptable
permeability of the placed fill is achieved.
2.Slurry density is greater than 70%Cw (solids by weight). The high density
minimises the drainage of transport water. The target density is a function of
particle specific gravity and the controlling parameter is %Cv (solids by volume)
which balances the requirement to transport the slurry without plugging the line
and excess drainage water.
3. The practical range is between 45%Cv and 50%Cv.
4. Hydraulic backfill slurries are transported by gravity through boreholes and pipelines to
the stopes.
5. The slurry enters the stope and the solid particles consolidate rapidly.
6.The excess transport water in the slurry will initially pond above the current solids layer,
butunder the influence of gravity will commence on a generally vertical drainage path.
downwards. The rate of drainage is a function of the permeability of the backfill and the
driving head. The quantity of water that will drain is a function of the initial slurry
density
and the residual moisture content of the backfill. The quantity of drainage resulting
from
slurry densities of around 70%Cw is as little as a quarter of the drainage resulting from
55%Cw slurries.
Free draining hydraulic backfill has a typical porosity of around 50%, can be walked on in
a few hours and is trafficable within 24 hours.
Where the hydraulic fill is to be exposed, cement addition rates of around 6% are
typically
required and this will result in unconfined compressive strengths of greater than 750kPa
within 28 days. Higher strengths and faster curing can be achieved by adding extra
cement.
At Mount Isa cemented hydraulic backfill consisting of 3% OPC, 6% ground furnace slag
(to produce 6% equivalent cement) and 91% deslimed tails are routinely exposed over
widths of 40 metres and over 100 metres high
BULK AND EXPOSABLE BACKFILLS

• There are several ways of classifying backfills, both by type and by

function.
• An essentialdistinction from the design point of view is whether the
backfill is to be used essentially asvoid filler or will it be exposed by
future mining of ore pillars.
• Prior to the advent of pastebackfill systems this classification could
be described as cemented or uncemented.
• However, paste needs small quantities of cement in all backfill placed
to eliminate the riskof liquefaction, therefore this classification is no
longer appropriate.
·Bulk Backfill :-
Waste materials placed into a stope for the purpose of
disposal and or to provide confinement to surrounding rock
walls. The upper surface can be used as a working platform.
Resistance to rock wall closure effected by intergranular
friction of the backfill.

·Exposable Backfill:-
Engineered materials with cement and or other binder added
which has sufficient cohesion to support its self weight when
exposed either as a vertical face or in an overhang by the
blasting of adjacent pillar ore
Disadvantages:-

There are two significant disadvantages to hydraulic backfill.

1. The first is that permeable barricades must be designed and
constructed to retain the backfill and permit the free drainage of excess
transport water. Barricades are commonly built with porous and take a two
man crew between 2 to 3 shifts to complete. This occurs as a critical path
activity between the completion of production in a stope and the
commencement of filling.
2. second disadvantage :- is the management of water in the
fill and the pump this water out of the mine. When controls on slurry density
are lax, excessive water can result in ponding of water in the stopes, which can
lead to the development of erosion pipes and cause barricade failure. In
calendar 1997, there were nine such incidents; in1998 there have been none
reported. The risk of barricade failure and the consequences of a backfill inrush
are a serious safety issue that requires management focus to ensure that the
risk factors are managed. The guidelines of fines removal and placement at
high slurry densities eliminate those risk factors.
Conclusion:-
Backfill is an increasingly important component of underground mining operations. As
mines get deeper, the need for improved ground control and maximised resource recovery
is essential to their safe and economic operation. The total management of waste materials
at the mine site needs to be engineered into the design of the mine. Increasingly,
environmental considerations are showing that improved waste management procedures
have benefits to the mining operations. Regulators are increasingly requiring the prior
planning of final site restoration as part of the initial mine plan.
Mining with backfill technology helps mining companies achieve many of these goals.
Backfill minimises the total quantities of materials to be managed on surface. The waste
materials can be engineered to give support and strength properties that improve the
safety of the mining operations and the economics of the enterprise.
The technology of backfilling enables a wide range of engineering solutions to particular
mine sites and their unique sets of problems and opportunities. There is not one universal
solution to backfill or mine tailings disposal systems.
AMC predicts that there will be many more developments yet to be seen in this rapidly
emerging area of technology.
 ROCK BOLTS
•Introduction
Rockbolts and dowels have been used for many years for the
support of underground excavations and a wide variety of bolt
and dowel types have been developed to meet different needs
which arise in mining and civil engineering.
Rockbolts generally consists of plain steel rods with a
mechanical or chemical anchor at on end and a face plate &
nut at the other end. They are always tensioned after
installation. For short term applications the bolts are generally
left ungrouted. For more permanent applications or in rock in
which corrosive groudwater is present, the space between the
rock& bolt can be filled with cement & resin grout.
Dowels or anchor bars generally consist of deformed steel bars
which are grouted into the rock. Tensioning is not possible and
the load in the dowels is generated by movements in the rock
mass. In order to be effective, dowels have to be installed
before significant movement in the rock mass has taken place.
Figure 1 illustrates a number of typical rockbolt and dowel
applications that can be used to control different types of
failure that occur in rock masses around underground
openings.
Figure 1: Typical rockbolt and dowel applications to control different
types of rock mass failure during tunnel driving.
 TYPES

 MECHANICALLY ANCHORED ROCKBOLTS

Expansion shell rockbolt anchors come in a wide variety of
styles but the basic principle of operation is the same in all
of these anchors. The components of a typical expansion
shell anchor are a tapered cone with an internal thread and a
pair of wedges held in place by a bail. The cone is screwed
onto the threaded end of the bolt and the entire assembly is
inserted into the hole that has been drilled to receive the
rockbolt. The length of the hole should be at least 100 mm
longer than the bolt otherwise the bail will be dislodged by
being forced against the end of the hole. Once the assembly
is in place, a sharp pull on the end of the bolt will seat the
anchor. Tightening the bolt will force the cone further into
the wedge thereby increasing the anchor force.
At the other end of the rockbolt from the anchor, a fixed head or
threaded end and nut system can be used. In either case, some
form of faceplate is required to distribute the load from the bolt
onto the rock face. In addition, a tapered washer or conical seat is
needed to compensate for the fact that the rock face is very seldom
at right angles to the bolt. A wide variety of faceplates and tapered
or domed washers are available from rockbolt suppliers.
Tensioning of rockbolts is important to ensure that all of the
components are in contact and that a positive force is applied to
the rock. In the case of light 'safety‘ bolts, the amount of tension
applied is not critical and tightening the nut with a conventional
wrench or with a pneumatic torque wrench is adequate. Where
the bolts are required to carry a significant load, it is generally
recommended that a tension of approximately 70% of the
capacity of the bolt be installed initially. This provides a known
load with a reserve in case of additional load being induced by
displacements in the rock mass.
 Expansion shell anchored rockbolt
• Steel rod diameter: 17.28 mm
• Ultimate tensile strength of bolt shank: approximately 12.7 tonnes
• Expansion shell anchor: Bail type three wedge anchor
• At the pre-load of 2.25 tonnes, no deformation of the face plate.
• At a load of 4 tonnes, the face plate has deformed 9.5 mm and is completely
flat, the bolt shank has deformed an additional 3.5 mm giving a total
deformation of 13 mm at 4tonnes load.
• Failure initiates at a load of 8 tonnes and a deformation of 25 mm with
progressive failure of the expansion shell anchor in which the cone is pulled
through the wedge.
• Maximum load is 9 tonnes at a deformation of 35 mm.
Figure 2: Components of a mechanically anchored rockbolt with provision for
grouting.
 RESIN ANCHORED ROCKBOLTS

A typical resin product is made up of two component cartridges containing

a resin and a catalyst in separate compartments. The cartridges are pushed
to the end of the drill hole ahead of the bolt rod that is then spun into the
resin cartridges by the drill. The plastic sheath of the cartridges is broken
and the resin and catalyst mixed by this spinning action. Setting of the
resin occurs within a few minutes (depending upon the specifications of
the resin mix) and a very strong anchor is created.

Resin grouted steel rebar

•Steel rebar diameter: 20 mm
•Ultimate tensile strength of steel rebar: 18 tonnes
•Faceplate: flat plate
•Borehole diameter: 32 mm
•Resin grout: Five 580 mm long, 27 mm diameter polyester resin cartridges.
Curing time 60 minutes. Mixed by rotating rebar through cartridges in the
borehole
•At a load of 15 tonnes and an elastic deformation of about 1.5 mm, a sudden load
drop is characteristic of hot rolled rebar steel. Maximum load is 18 tonnes at a
deformation of 20 mm.
• The resin is stronger than the cement grout and local fracturing and bond failure
in and near the joint is limited as compared with the cement grouted rebar,
leading to a reduced ultimate displacement at rebar failure.

Typical set-up for creating a resin anchored and grouted rockbolt.