Instrumentation and

Measurements

Dr. Mohammad Kilani

Class 1
Introduction
 Introduction to Measurements
Measurement techniques have been of immense importance

ever since the start of human civilization, when measurements

were first needed to regulate the transfer of goods in barter

trade to ensure that exchanges were fair. The industrial

revolution during the nineteenth century brought about a

rapid development of new instruments and measurement

techniques to satisfy the needs of industrialized production

techniques.
 Applications of Measurement Systems

1. Regulating trade

2. Monitoring to allow human beings to take some action accordingly

3. Use as part of automatic feedback control systems

 The Five Senses

1. See

2. Hear

3. Touch

4. Taste

5. Smell
Limitations of Unassisted Measurements
 Sensing Principles
The interaction of physical parameters with each other—most notably electricity with stress, temperature and thermal gradients, magnetic fields,

and incident light—yields a multitude of sensing techniques which may be applied in measurements

 Transductive

 Piezoelectric

Transducer
 Thermoelectric

 Photoelectric
Pressure Current

 etc. Temperature Voltage

Light Other.

 Constitutive

 Resistive

 Capacitive

 Inductive Sensor

 Etc. Pressure

Temperature R, C. L, etc

Light
 Standardization of Units
 Establishment of standards for the measurement of

physical quantities proceeded in several countries at

broadly parallel times, and in consequence, several sets

of units emerged for measuring the same physical

variable.

 An internationally agreed set of standard units (SI units

or Syst`emes Internationales d’Unit´es) has been

defined, and strong efforts are being made to encourage

the adoption of this system throughout the world.

Standard Units
 Fundamental Units and
Supplementary Fundamental Units
Derived Units
 Elements of a Measurement Systems
In simple cases, the system can consist of only a single

unit that gives an output reading or signal according to

the magnitude of the unknown.

However, in more complex measurement situations, a

measuring system consists of several separate

elements. These components might be contained

within one or more boxes, and the boxes holding

individual measurement elements might be either close

together or physically separate.

 Elements of a Measurement Systems
In simple cases, the system can consist of only a single

unit that gives an output reading or signal according to

the magnitude of the unknown.

However, in more complex measurement situations, a

measuring system consists of several separate

elements. These components might be contained

within one or more boxes, and the boxes holding

individual measurement elements might be either close

together or physically separate.

 Elements of a Measurement Systems

[Morris, Measurement & Instrumentation Principles]

Variable Conversion
Sensor Signal Processor
Element
Measured Variable

Signal Transmission

Presentation / Recording

Unit

Output Use of Measurement at Remote

Location
Elements of a Measurement Systems

[Figliola, Theory and Design of Mechanical Measurements]

 Elements of a Measurement Systems:
Sensor

 A sensor gives an output that is a function of the

measurand (the input applied to it).

 For most but not all sensors, this function is at least

approximately linear.

 Some examples of primary sensors are a liquid

mercury in the liquid-in-glass thermometer, a

thermocouple and a strain gauge.

 Examples Sensors

Strain gauge
Liquid Mercury Thermocouple

Input: Strain
Input: Temperature Input: Temperature

Output: Electric resistance

Output: Mercury volume Output: Voltage

Are these linear sensors?

 Examples Sensors

Liquid Mercury Thermometer

Measured Variable: Temperature

Sensor: Liquid Mercury

Variable Conversion Element: Stem

Signal Presentation Element: Display Scale

 Elements of a Measurement Systems:
Variable Coversion Element

 Needed where the output variable of a primary sensor is in an

inconvenient form and has to be converted to a more convenient

form.

 The displacement-measuring strain gauge has an output in the form

of a varying resistance. The resistance change cannot be easily

measured and so it is converted to a change in voltage by a bridge

circuit, which is a typical example of a variable conversion element.

 In some cases, the primary sensor and variable conversion element

are combined, and the combination is known as a transducer.

 Elements of a Measurement Systems:
Signal Processing Element
Improve the quality of the output of a measurement system.

A very common type is the electronic amplifier, used when the primary transducer has a low output. For example, thermocouples have a

typical output of only a few millivolts.

Other signal processing element are those that filter out induced noise and remove mean levels etc. In some devices, signal processing

is incorporated into a transducer, which is then known as a transmitter.

 Elements of a Measurement Systems:
Signal Transmission

Needed when the observation or application point of the output of a

measurement system is some distance away from the site of the

primary transducer.

It has traditionally consisted of single or multi-cored cable, which is

often screened to minimize signal corruption by induced electrical

noise.

Fibre-optic cables are being used in ever increasing numbers in

modern installations because of their low transmission loss and

imperviousness to the effects of electrical and magnetic fields.

 Elements of a Measurement Systems:
Signal Presentation or Recording Unit

 The final optional element in a

measurement system.

 It may be omitted altogether when the

measurement is used as part of an

automatic control system.

 It takes the form either of a signal

presentation unit or of a signal-

recording unit.
 Elements of a Measurement Systems

Variable Conversion Presentation / Recording

Sensor Signal Processor
Element Unit

Measured Variable
 Elements of a Measurement Systems

Variable Conversion Presentation / Recording

Sensor Signal Processor
Element Unit

Measured Variable

Signal Transmission

Transducer
 Elements of a Measurement Systems

Variable Conversion Presentation / Recording

Sensor Signal Processor
Element Unit

Measured Variable

Signal Transmission

Transducer

Transmitter
 Case Study 1
Resistive Temperature Detector (RTDs)

 Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), are sensors

used to measure temperature by correlating the

resistance of the RTD element with temperature.

 Most RTD elements consist of a length of fine coiled wire

wrapped around a ceramic or glass core. The RTD

element is made from a pure material whose resistance

at various temperatures has been documented; The

change in resistance is used to determine temperature.

 Case Study 1
Resistive Temperature Detector (RTDs)

 Although most metals can in theory be used in RTDs,

only a few have been practically applied.

 RTD elements are normally constructed of platinum,

copper, or nickel. These metals are suited for RTD

applications because of their linear resistance-

temperature characteristics, their high resistive

temperature coefficient, and their ability to withstand

repeated temperature cycles.

 Case Study 1
Resistive Temperature Detector (RTDs)

 The coefficient of resistance is the change in resistance per

degree change in temperature, usually expressed as a

percentage per degree of temperature. The material used must

be capable of being drawn into fine wire so that the element

can be easily constructed.

 Case Study 1
Resistive Temperature Detector (RTDs)

 With proper circuitry (e.g., Wheatstone

bridge), the change in resistance can be

converted into a change in voltage.

 The combination then becomes a

temperature transducer
 Case Study 1
Resistive Temperature Detector (RTDs)

 The simplest bridge configuration uses two wires. It

is used when high accuracy is not required, as the R R

u 1 V
resistance of the connecting wires is added to that i

of the sensor, leading to errors of measurement. V

o

 This configuration allows use of 100 meters of cable. R

3 R
2

 Ru R1 
Vo  Vi   
 Ru  R3 R1  R2 

When the bridge is balanced, Vo = 0

Ru R3  R1 R2
 Homework

 Suggest an alternative configuration to eliminate the

effect of lead resistance. Be prepared to present R R

u 1 V
your suggestion on class this Thursday. i

V
 Make a team with four students per team. o
R
3 R
2

 Ru R1 
Vo  Vi   
 Ru  R3 R1  R2 

When the bridge is balanced, Vo = 0

Ru R3  R1 R2
Choosing appropriate measuring instruments

 Accuracy, resolution, sensitivity and dynamic performance.

 Environmental conditions that the instrument will be subjected to. Measurement systems and

instruments should be chosen that are as insensitive as possible to the operating environment.

 The extent to which the measured system will be disturbed during the measuring process is

another important factor in instrument choice. For example, significant pressure loss can be

caused to the measured system in some techniques of flow measurement.