Motivation

Motivation Concepts
Concepts

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Chapter
Chapter Learning
Learning Objectives
Objectives
 After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
– Describe the three elements of motivation.
– Identify four early theories of motivation and evaluate their
applicability today.
– Compare and contrast goal-setting theory and Management by
Objectives.
– Apply the key tenets of expectancy theory to motivating
employees.
– Compare contemporary theories of motivation.
– Explain to what degree motivation theories are culture-bound.

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Defining
Defining Motivation
Motivation
The result of the interaction between the individual and the
situation.

The processes that account for an individual’s

intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward
attaining a goal – specifically, an organizational goal.

Three key elements:

– Intensity – how hard a person tries
– Direction – effort that is channeled toward, and consistent
with, organizational goals
– Persistence – how long a person can maintain effort

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Early
Early Theories
Theories of
of Motivation
Motivation
These early theories form the basis for contemporary
theories and are still used by practicing managers.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
McClelland’s Theory of Needs

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Maslow’s
Maslow’s Hierarchy
Hierarchy of
of Needs
Needs
There is a hierarchy of five needs. As each need is substantially
satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.

Self-
Assumptions
Actualization
– Individuals cannot
Higher Order Esteem move to the next
Internal higher level until
Social all needs at the
current (lower)
Lower Order Safety level are satisfied
External – Must move in
Physiological
hierarchical order

See E X H I B I T 6-1
See E X H I B I T 6-1

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Alderfer’s
Alderfer’s ERG
ERG Theory
Theory
A reworking of Maslow to fit empirical research.

Three groups of core needs:

– Existence (Maslow: physiological and safety)
– Relatedness (Maslow: social and status) E
– Growth (Maslow: esteem and self-actualization) R G
Removed the hierarchical assumption
– Can be motivated by all three at once
– Unlike with Maslow's theory, managers need to understand that each employee operates
with the need to satisfy several motivators simultaneously. Based upon the ERG theory,
leadership which focuses on exlcusively one need at a time will not motivate their people
effectively.

 Popular, but not too accurate, theory

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McGregor’s
McGregor’s Theory
Theory XX and
and Theory
Theory YY
 Two distinct views of human beings: Theory X
(basically negative) and Theory Y (positive).
– Managers used a set of assumptions based on their view
– The assumptions molded their behavior toward employees

Theory X Theory Y
• Workers have little • Workers are self-
ambition directed
• Dislike work • Enjoy work
• Avoid responsibility • Accept responsibility

 Mixed empirical evidence

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Herzberg’s
Herzberg’s Two-Factor
Two-Factor Theory
Theory
Key Point: Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposites
but separate constructs
Hygiene Motivator
Factors s

Extrinsic and Company

Growth Intrinsic and
Policies
Related to Related to
Dissatisfaction Salary
Responsibilit Satisfaction
y

Work
Achievement
Conditions

See E X H I B I T S 6-2 and 6-3

See E X H I B I T S 6-2 and 6-3

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Criticisms
Criticisms of
of Two-Factor
Two-Factor Theory
Theory
Herzberg says that hygiene factors must be met to remove
dissatisfaction. If motivators are given, then satisfaction
can occur.

Herzberg is limited by his procedure

– Participants had self-serving bias
– Talked about in last class
Reliability of raters questioned
– Bias or errors of observation
No overall measure of satisfaction was used
Herzberg assumed, but didn’t research, a strong
relationship between satisfaction and productivity

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McClelland’s
McClelland’s Three
Three Needs
Needs Theory
Theory
 Need for Achievement (nAch)
– The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of
standards, to strive to succeed
 Need for Power (nPow)
– The need to make others behave in a way that they would
not have behaved otherwise
 Need for Affiliation (nAff)
– The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships
 People have varying levels of each of the three needs.

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Performance
Performance Predictions
Predictions for
for High
High nAch
nAch
 People with a high need for achievement are likely to:
– Prefer to undertake activities with a 50/50 chance of success,
avoiding very low- or high-risk situations
– Be motivated in jobs that offer high degree of personal
responsibility, feedback, and moderate risk
– Need high level of nPow and low nAff for managerial
success

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Contemporary
Contemporary Theories
Theories of
of Motivation
Motivation
 Goal-Setting Theory
– Management by Objectives (MBO)
 Self-Efficacy Theory (Self-Esteem)
– Also known as Social Cognitive Theory or Social Learning
Theory
 Reinforcement Theory
 Equity Theory
 Expectancy Theory

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Locke’s
Locke’s Goal-Setting
Goal-Setting Theory
Theory
 Basic Premise:
– That specific and difficult goals, with self-generated
feedback, lead to higher performance
 Difficult Goals:
– Focus and direct attention
– Energize the person to work harder
– Difficulty increases persistence
– Force people to be more effective and efficient
 Relationship between goals and performance depends on:
– Goal commitment (the more public the better!)
– Task characteristics (simple, well-learned)
– Culture (best match is in North America)

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Implementation:
Implementation: Management
Management by
by Objectives
Objectives
 MBO is a systematic way to utilize goal-setting.
 Goals must be:
– Tangible
– Verifiable
– Measurable
 Corporate goals are broken down into smaller,
more specific goals at each level of organization.
 Four common ingredients to MBO programs:
– Goal specificity
– Participative decision making
– Explicit time period
– Performance feedback

See E X H I B I T 6-5
See E X H I B I T 6-5

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Bandura’s
Bandura’s (Korman,
(Korman, Lecky)
Lecky) Self-Efficacy
Self-Efficacy
Theory
Theory
 An individual’s belief that he or she is capable of
performing a task.
– Higher efficacy is related to:
• Greater confidence
• Greater persistence in the face of difficulties
• Better response to negative feedback (work harder)
– Self-Efficacy complements Goal-Setting Theory.

Increased Confidence

Given Hard Goal Higher Performance

Higher Self-Set Goal

See E X H I B I T 6-6
See E X H I B I T 6-6

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Increasing
Increasing Self-Efficacy
Self-Efficacy
 Enactive mastery
– Most important source of efficacy
– Gaining relevant experience with task or job
– “Practice makes perfect”
 Vicarious modeling
– Increasing confidence by watching others perform the task
– Most effective when observer sees the model to be similar to him-
or herself
 Verbal persuasion
– Motivation through verbal conviction
– Pygmalion and Galatea effects - self-fulfilling prophecies
 Arousal
– Getting “psyched up” – emotionally aroused – to complete task

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Adams’
Adams’ Equity
Equity Theory
Theory
 Employees compare their ratios of outcomes-to-inputs
of relevant others.
– When ratios are equal: state of equity exists – there is no
tension as the situation is considered fair
– When ratios are unequal: tension exists due to unfairness
• Underrewarded states cause anger
• Overrewarded states cause guilt
– Tension motivates people to act to bring their situation into
equity

See E X H I B I T 6-7
See E X H I B I T 6-7

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Vroom’s
Vroom’s Expectancy
Expectancy Theory
Theory
The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way
depends on the strength of an expectation that the act
will be followed by a given outcome and on the
attractiveness of the outcome to the individual.
Expectancy of Instrumentality Valuation of the
performance of success in reward in
success getting reward employee’s eyes

See E X H I B I T 6-9
See E X H I B I T 6-9

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 Global
Global Implications
Implications
 Motivation theories are often culture-bound.
– Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
• Order of needs is not universal
– McClelland’s Three Needs Theory
• nAch presupposes a willingness to accept risk and performance
concerns – not universal traits
– Adams’ Equity Theory
• A desire for equity is not universal
• “Each according to his need” – socialist/former communists
 Desire for interesting work seems to be universal.
– There is some evidence that the intrinsic factors of
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory may be universal

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Summary
Summary and
and Managerial
Managerial Implications
Implications
 Need Theories (Maslow, Alderfer, McClelland,
Herzberg)
– Well known, but not very good predictors of behavior
 Goal-Setting Theory
– While limited in scope, good predictor
 Equity Theory
– Best known for research in organizational justice
 Expectancy Theory
– Good predictor of performance variables

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