SQL

By
Balraj and Ziya
 RDBMS
 RDBMS is an acronym for Relational Database
Management System. The data in RDBMS is stored in
database objects called tables. The database tables
are the primary data storage for every RDBMS and
essentially they are collections of related data entries.
 For example a table called Users might store

information about many persons, and each entry in

this table will represent one unique user. Even though
all user entries in the Users table are unique, they are
related in the sense that they describe similar objects. 
Continued..
 Table Users
First name Last name Date of birth

John Smith 12/12/1969

David Stonewall 01/03/1954

Susan Grant 03/03/1970

 Each database table consists of columns and

rows.
Continued..
 Each table column defines the type of data stored in it, and this
data type is valid for all rows in this table. A table row is a collection
of data having 1 entry for each column in this particular table.

 DBMS store the data into group of tables, which might or might not
be related by common fields (database table columns).

 RDBMS also provide relational operators to insert/update/delete

information stored into the database tables.

 MS SQL Server, DB2, Oracle and MySQL are all Relational

Database Management Systems.
Contents
 Introduction to SQL
 Types of languages
 DDL
 DML
 DCL
 Aggregate functions
 JOINS
DML commands
 Insert
 Select
 Update
 Delete
Introduction to SQL

 SQL is used to make a request to retrieve data from a Database.

 The DBMS processes the SQL request, retrieves the requested data from the
Database, and returns it.
 This process of requesting data from a Database and receiving back the
results is called a Database Query and hence the name Structured Query
Language.
 SQL is a non-procedural language aimed to store, manipulate and retrieve
data

stored in a relational database.

 This language was developed by IBM corporation for processing data
contained in mainframe computer database.
 By Dr.E.F.CODD.
Types of languages

 There are three types of languages in SQL.

 Data Definition Language (DDL)

 Data Modification Language(DML)
 Data Control Language (DCL)
Data Definition Language (DDL)

 DDL contains the commands used to create,

modify and drop the database, tables and
other objects in the database.

 CREATE
 USE
 ALTER
 DROP
Create -SQL
Syntax:
CREATE TABLE tablename
(column_name data_ type constraint, column_name data_ type
constraint);
 CREATE TABLE Customer_Details

 (Cust_ID Number(5),
 Cust_Last_Name VarChar(20),
 Cust_Mid_Name VarChar(4),
 Cust_First_Name VarChar(20),
 Account_No Int,
 Account_Type VarChar(10),
 Bank_Branch VarChar(25),

Cust_Email VarChar(30));
SQL - ALTER TABLE

 Syntax
ALTER TABLE tablename (ADD/MODIFY/DROP) column_name

ALTER TABLE Customer_Details

ADD Contact_Phone int;

ALTER TABLE Customer_Details

MODIFY Contact_Phone int;

ALTER TABLE Customer_Details

DROP (Contact_Phone);
Definations
 PRIMARY KEY: Uniquely identifies each row of the
table and prevents NULL values. A table can have
only one primary key constraint.

 NOT NULL: Prevents NULL values from being

entered into the column. These types of constraints
are defined on a single column. By default, Oracle
allows NULL values in any column. A NOT NULL
constraint is defined at the column level; it cannot
be defined at the table level.
Drop Table-SQL
 DROP TABLE
◦ Deletes table structure
◦ Cannot be recovered
◦ Use with caution

 TO DELETE A FIELD FROM THE TABLE STRUCTURE :

◦ alter table tablename drop column columnname;
◦ sql> alter table Customer_Details drop column Cust_Last_Name ;
 Drop :
◦ IT IS USED TO DELETE THE STRUCTURE OF THE TABLE.
◦ EX: drop table tablename;
◦ sql > drop table Customer_Details
Truncate Table
 Deleting All Rows of a table
TRUNCATE TABLE Customer Details;

 TRUNCATE:
 The TRUNCATE statement is similar to a DELETE statement
without a WHERE clause, except for the following:

 TRUNCATE is very fast on both large and small tables. DELETE will
generate undo information, in case a rollback is issued, but
TRUNCATE will not generate undo.

 TRUNCATE is DDL and, like all DDL, performs an implicit commit –

a TRUNCATE cannot be rolled back. Any uncommitted DML
changes will also be committed with the TRUNCATE.
Difference between Delete and Truncate
DELETE TRUNCATE
Data can be recovered Data cannot be recovered.

DML statement DDL statement

DELETE does not release the memory TRUNCATE releases the memory
occupied by the records of the table occupied by the records of the table
Select-command
 Select: It has 5 main clauses to choose from

 SELECT [ALL|DISTINCT] col1[,col2]

FROM table1[,table2]

[WHERE condition]

[GROUP BY column-list]

[HAVING conditions]

[ORDER BY column-list [ASC|DSC]]

Note:[]-Optional
Group by -example
O_id Order date Order price customer

1 12/11/2008 1000 Ram

2 23/10/2008 1600 Ravi

3 02/09/2008 700 Ram

4 03/09/2008 300 Ram

5 30/08/2008 2000 John

6 04/10/2008 100 Ravi

Continued..
 Select customer, sum(order price) from
orders Group by customer
 Out put

Customer Order price

Ram 2000

Ravi 1700

John 2000
Having Clause
 The Having clause was added to SQL, because the
where keyword can not be used with aggregate
functions.
 The same example with Having clause.
 Select customer, sum(order price) from orders
Group by customer
Having sum(order price) >1700.
Customer Order price

Ram 2000

John 2000
Update and Delete
 Update:
 Syntax:
 UPDATE table name
SET Column name=[new value]
WHERE {condition}
 Delete:
 Syntax:
 DELETE from table name
WHERE {condition}
DCL-Commands
 DCL statements are used for securing the database
and control the access to database.
 Grant
 Revoke
 USE Dtabase_name
Grant select on table name
to public
 USE Dtabase_name
Revoke select on table name
to public
Aggregate functions

 Aggregate functions operate against a

collection of values, but return a single value.
 Min
 Max
 Sum
 Count(column)
 Count(*)
 Avg
The JOIN concept

1. JOIN is a query clause that can be used with the SELECT, UPDATE, and DELETE
data query statements to simultaneously affect rows from multiple tables.
There are several distinct types of JOIN statements that return different data
result sets.

2. Joined tables must each include at least one field in both tables that contain
comparable data.
For example, if you want to join a Customer table and a
Transaction table, they both must contain a common element, such as
CustomerID column, to serve as a key on which the data can be matched. Tables
can be joined on multiple columns so long as the columns have the potential to
supply matching information. Column names across tables don't have to be the
same, although for readability this standard is generally preferred.
The basic JOIN statement
1. SELECT Customer.CustomerID, TransID, TransAmt
FROM Customer JOIN Transaction
ON Customer.CustomerID = Transaction.CustomerID;

 In practice, you'd never use the example above

because the type of join is not specified. In this case,
SQL Server assumes an INNER JOIN. You can get the
equivalent to this query by using the
Statement:
Inner join

In relational databases, a join operation matches
records in two tables. The two tables must be
joined by at least one common field. That is, the
join field is a member of both tables. Typically, a
join operation is part of a SELECT query.

 select * from A, B where A.x = B.y

The column names (x and y in this example) are
often, but not necessarily, the same.
Outer Join
(database)outer join - A less commonly used variant of the inner join relational database
operation. An inner join selects rows from two tables such that the value in one column
of the first table also appears in a certain column of the second table. For an outer join,
the result also includes all rows from the first operand ("left outer join", "*="), or the
second operand ("right outer join", "=*"), or both ("full outer join", "*=*"). A field in a
result row will be null if the corresponding input table did not contain a matching row.

For example, if we want to list all employees and their employee number, but not all
employees have a number, then we could say (in SQL):

SELECT employee.name, empnum.number WHERE employee.id *= empnum.id

The "*=" means "left outer join" and means that all rows from the "employee" table will
appear in the result, even if there is no match for their ID in the empnum table.
The notorious CROSS JOIN
The CROSS JOIN has earned a bad reputation because it’s very resource
intensive and returns results of questionable usefulness. When you use the
CROSS
JOIN, you're given a result set containing every possible combination of the rows
returned from each table. Take the following example:

SELECT Customer Name, TransDate, TransAmt FROM Customer CROSS JOIN

Transaction;

With the CROSS JOIN, you aren’t actually free to limit the results, but you can
use
The ORDER BY clause to control the way they are returned. If the tables joined in
this example contained only five rows each, you would get 25 rows of results.
Every Customer Name would be listed as associated with every TransDate and
TransAmt.
I really did try to come up with examples where this function was useful, and
they
were all very contrived. However, I’m sure someone out there is generating lists
of
all their products in all possible colors or something similar, or we wouldn’t
have
this wonderful but dangerous feature.
The OUTER JOIN can include mismatched rows

OUTER JOINs, sometimes called “complex joins,” aren’t actually

complicated. They are so called because SQL Server performs two functions
for each OUTER JOIN.

The first function performed is an INNER JOIN. The second function includes
the rows that the INNERJOIN would have dropped. Which rows are included
depends on the type of OUTER JOIN that is used and the order the tables
were presented.

There are three types of an OUTER JOIN: LEFT, RIGHT, and FULL. As you’ve
Probably guessed, the LEFT OUTER JOIN keeps the stray rows from the “left”
table (the one listed first in your query statement). In the result set, columns
from the other table that have no corresponding data are filled with NULL
values.
Similarly, the RIGHT OUTER JOIN keeps stray rows from the right table, filling
columns from the left table with NULL values. The FULL OUTER JOIN keeps all
stray rows as part of the result set. Here is your example:
Continued..
SELECT Customer Name, TransDate, TransAmt FROM Customer LEFT
OUTER JOIN Transaction ON Customer. CustomerID =
Transaction. CustomerID;

Customer names that have no associated transactions will still be

displayed. However, transactions with no corresponding customers will
not, because we used a LEFT OUTER JOIN and the Customer table was
listed first.

In SQL Server, the word OUTER is actually optional.

The clauses LEFT JOIN, RIGHT JOIN, and FULL JOIN are equivalent to
LEFT OUTER JOIN, RIGHT OUTER JOIN, and FULL OUTER JOIN,
respectively.
THE END