INTRODUCTION

Anupama V
Assistant Professor
Dept CSE, CEC
 Outline
Meaning of Management
Nature & Characteristics of Management
Scope of Management
Functional Areas of Management
Goals of Management
Levels of Management
Development of Management Thoughts
Early, Modern Management Approaches
 Outline
Nature of Planning
Importance of Planning
Types of Plans
Steps in Planning
Nature & purpose of Organization
Types of Organization,
Meaning of Staffing
Process of Recruitment & Selection
 Importance of Management
Management is a critical element in the
economic growth of a country.

Management is the dynamic, life giving

element in every organization.
 Definition of Management
‘the art of getting things done through people’ -
Mary Parker Follet
“a process consisting of planning, organizing,
actuating and controlling performed to
determine and accomplish the objectives by the
use of people and resources”- George R Terry
There are four views of management:
(1) Management is a process.
(2) Management is a discipline.
(3) Management is a human activity.
(4) Management is a career.
 Definition of Management
“Management is the direction and maintenance of
an internal environment in an enterprise where
individuals working in groups can perform
efficiently and effectively towards the attainment
of group goals”- Koontz and O’Donnel
“Management is the art of knowing what you want
to do and then seeing that it is done in the best
and cheapest way” - F.W. Taylor
“Management is the art and science of decision
making and leadership” - Donald J Clough
 NATURE OF MANAGEMENT

1) Multidisciplinary
2) Dynamic nature of principles
3) Continuous Process
4) Management – science or art
5) Universality of management
 CHARACTERISTICS OF
MANAGEMENT
 Management is a continuous process
 Management is an art as well as science
 Management aims at achieving predetermined
objectives
 Management is a factor of production
 Management is decision-making
 Universal application
 CHARACTERISTICS OF
MANAGEMENT
 Management is needed at all levels
 Management aims at maximum profit
 Dynamic
 Management as a career
 Management is a discipline
 FUNCTIONAL AREAS OF
MANAGEMENT
Production/Operation: responsible for all
production related activities like Purchasing,
Materials management, Research & Development
etc..
Marketing:
-involves the distribution of organizations’ products
to the buyers.
-Sub activities like Advertising, Marketing research,
Sales management.
Finance and accounting: deals with intelligent
investment of financial resources and record-keeping
of various transactions
-sub functions are Financial Accounting, Management
Accounting, Costing, Investment Management,
Taxation
Personnel: management of human resources
sub-activities are Recruitment and Selection, Training and
Development, Wage and Salary Administration, Industrial
Relations
Management Information System
Strategy
SCOPE OF MANAGEMENT
ROLES OF MANAGEMENT
 Interpersonal role: interacting with people both
organizational members and outsiders.
Figure head role: duties of ceremonial nature such as
attending social functions of employees, taking an
important customer to lunch & so on.
Leader role: leading the subordinates motivating and
encouraging them.
Liaison: connecting link between his organization &
outsiders , cultivate contacts outside his vertical chain
to collect information useful for his organization.
Information roles: involves communication.
Monitor: monitoring role, collects information about all
the factors which affects his activities
Disseminator: possesses privileged information to his
subordinates who otherwise not be in a position to collect
it.
Spokesperson: represents his organization while
interacting with outsiders like customers, suppliers,
financers, government & other agencies of the society.
Decisional roles: involves choosing most appropriate
alternative among all so that organizational objectives are
achieved in an efficient manner1
Entrepreneur: constantly looks out for new ideas &
seeks to improve his unit by adopting it to dynamic
environment.
Disturbance handler: works like a fire-fighter manager
contains forces and events which disturb normal
functioning of his organization.
Negotiator: negotiates with various groups in the
organization. Such groups are employees, shareholders
and other outside agencies.
Management Levels
Top-level management
(president, executive vice president)

Middle managers
(chief engineer, division head etc.)
First-line managers
(foreman, supervisor, section chief)
Management Levels
 Top level management:
-determines goals and objectives
-performs overall planning, organizing, staffing,
directing and controlling
-integrates organization with environment,
balances the interest groups & is responsible for
overall results.
 Middle management:
-establishes programs for department & carries
out functions for achieving specific goals.
-training and development of employees,
integrating various parts of the department.
 Supervisory management:
-concerned with efficiency in using resources of
the organization.
-supervisor is an executor of policies &
procedures making a series of decisions with
well-defined & specified premises.
 Managerial Level

Lowest Middle Top

Skills required versus management

Managerial Skills:
Managers need three types of skills:
Technical: Specific subject related skills such as engineering,
accounting, etc…
Interpersonal: Skills related to dealing with others and leading,
motivating, or controlling them
Conceptual: Ability to discern the critical factors that will
determine as organization’s success or failure.
Ability to see the forest in spite of the trees.
 EVOLUTION OF MANAGEMENT
Classification:
-Early management approaches
* Taylor’s scientific management
* Foyal’s administrative management
* bureaucracy
-Neo classical approches
* human relations movement
* behavioural approach
-Modern management approaches
* quantitative/management science
* systems approach
* contingency approach.
 Taylor’s Scientific Management
Principles:
1. Time & Motion Study
2. Differential Payment
3. Drastic Reorganization of Supervision
4. Scientific Recruitment & Training
5. Intimate Friendly Cooperation b/w the management & Workers
 Taylor’s Scientific Management

General Approach
Developed standard method for performing each
job.
Selected workers with appropriate abilities for each
job.
Trained workers in standard method.
Supported workers by planning work and eliminating
interruptions.
Provided wage incentives to workers for increased
output.
 Taylor’s Scientific Management
Contributions
Demonstrated the importance of compensation for
performance.
Initiated the careful study of tasks and jobs.
Demonstrated the importance of personnel and their
training.

Criticisms
Did not appreciate social context of work and higher
needs of workers.
Did not acknowledge variance among individuals.
Tended to regard workers as uninformed and ignored
their ideas
 Administrative Management
Focus:
 Organization rather than the individual
 Delineated the management functions of planning,
organizing, commanding, coordinating, and
controlling
Henri Fayol:
Developed a set of 14 general principles of
management.
 His managerial functions of planning, leading,
organizing, and controlling are routinely used in
modern organizations.
 Administrative Management
14 General Principles of Management

 Division of labor  Centralization

 Authority  Scalar chain
 Discipline  Order
 Unity of command  Equity
 Unity of direction  Stability and tenure of
 Subordination of staff
individual interest  Initiative
 Remuneration  Esprit de corps
 Foyal’s Administrative Management

Criticisms
Leads to formation of small groups
Results in dissatisfaction of workers
Theses principles result onto formation of mechanistic
organizational structure.
 Bureaucratic Management
Focuses on the overall organizational system and
is based upon firm rules, policies, and
procedures; a fixed hierarchy; and a clear division
of labor

Max
 Weber (1864-1920), a German sociologist and
historian, is most closely associated with bureaucratic
management.
 Bureaucratic Management
 Envisioned a system of management that would be
based upon impersonal and rational behavior.
 Conceptualized the approach to management
referred to as bureaucracy.
 Division of labor
 Hierarchy of authority
 Rules and procedures

 Impersonality

 Employee selection and promotion

 Quantitative Approaches
Is characterized by its use of mathematics, statistics, and
other quantitative techniques for management decision
making and problem solving. This approach has four
basic characteristics:

Decision- Measurable Quantitative

Computers
making focus criteria model
Decision-Making Focus
The primary focus of the quantitative approach is
on problems or situations that require some
direct action, or decision, on the part of
management.
Measurable Criteria
The decision-making process requires that the
decision maker select some alternative course of
action. The alternatives must be compared on
the basis of some measurable criteria.
Quantitative Model
To assess the likely impact of each alternative on
the stated criteria, a quantitative model of the
decision situation must be formulated.
Computers
 Computers are quite useful in the problem-
solving process.
Systems Approach
 System is powerful collection of people, objects &
procedures for operating within an environment so as to
achieve a pre-determined objectives.
A system is a set of interdependent parts.
(task, structure, people technology)
System can be either open or closed.
System has a boundary.
Manager integrates his available facilities with goal
achievement.
Uses
 Quick Perception
 Better Planning
Limitations
 Complicated
 Expensive
 Contingency Perspective
A view that proposes that there is no one best
approach to management for all situations.
Asserts that managers are responsible for
determining which managerial approach is
likely to be most effective in a given situation.
This requires managers to identify the key
contingencies in a given situation.
 Example of the Contingency
Perspective
Joan Woodward discovered that a particular management
style is affected by the organization’s technology.
Woodward identified and described three different types
of technology:

Small-batch Mass-production Continuous-process

technology technology technology
 Planning Definition
Planning is deciding in advance what to do, how to
do it, when to do it and who is to do it. It bridges
the gap from where we are and to where we want
to go. It is in essence the exercise of foresight.
Planning is an intellectual process which requires a
manager to think before acting.
Planning is the management function that includes
decisions and actions to insure future results. -
Peter Drucker
 Nature Of Planning
Planning: A Rational Approach

Planning: An Open System Approach

Flexibility of Planning
Pervasiveness of Planning
 Importance of Planning

Minimizes Risk and uncertainty

Lead to success
Focuses attention on the Organization Goals
Facilitates Control
Trains Executives
Minimize waste and redundancy
Reduce the impact of change
FORMS OF PLANNING
 What is STRATEGIC planning?

Is defining and prioritizing long-term plans

that includes examining an organization’s
purpose, mission, philosophy and goals in the
light of its external environment
It is proactive and future-oriented, focuses on
a 3-5 year operation of the organization
It generally aims at creating an image of the
desired future and design ways to make plans
a reality
 What is TACTICAL planning?

Deciding how resources of the organization will

be used to achieve strategic goal.
Ex1: Unit Director plans a meeting of staff
nurses to reinforce knowledge gained from
orientation of new staff… may get endorsement
from the Division Chief Nurse who has set her
own staff development plan for the whole
division.
Ex2: Unit Director reviews with staff medicine
supplies
Strategic Vs Tactical Planning
Types of Plans
 Objectives
Goals or aims which the management wishes
to achieve.
Specific target to be reached by an organization
Objective Vs Vision
Vision is the dream that an entrepreneur creates
in his waking hours of his prefer future
Objective Vs Purpose
Purpose is primary role defined by the society
or a broad aim
Objective Vs Mission
Mission is unique aim that sets the organization
apart from other of its type
 Objectives:
 To increase number of intake by 10% by December 2020.
 To achieve 100% placement in the current year.
Purpose:
Impart education
Mission:
 Provide the right environment to develop quality education
for all, irrespective of caste, creed or religion to produce
future leaders.
 Create opportunities for pursuit of knowledge and all round
development.
 Impart value education to students to build sense of
integrity, honesty and ethics.
Vision: what the business's future will look like
 To be an Engineering Institute of highest repute and
produce world- class engineers catering to the needs of
mankind
 Characteristics of objectives
Objectives are multiple in number.
Objectives are either tangible or intangible.
Objective have a priority.
Objectives are generally arranged in a
hierarchy.
Objectives sometimes clash with each other.
Objectives must be clear & acceptable.
Objectives must support one another.
Objective have a priority.
Objectives must be precise & measurable.
Objectives should always remain valid.
 Provide basis for planning.
Act as motivator.
Eliminate haphazard action.
Facilitate coordinated behavior.
Basis for managerial control.
Facilitate better management.
Lessen misunderstanding & conflict.
Provide legitimacy.
 Strategies
A strategy is a plan which considers
environmental opportunities and threats and
the organizational strengths and weakness
and provides an optimal match between the
firm and external environment.
Two activities involved in strategy
formulation are
- Environmental appraisal
- Corporate appraisal.
 Environmental Appraisal
Political and legal factors: Stability of
government, taxation and licensing laws, fiscal
policies, restrictions on capital etc.
Economic factors: Economic development,
distribution of personal income, trend in prices,
exchange rates etc.,
Competitive factors: Identifying principal
competitors & analysis of their performance, anti-
monopoly laws, protection of patents, brand names
etc.
Social and Cultural factor: Literacy level,
Religious & social characteristics, rate of
urbanization
 Corporate Appraisal
It involves identifying and analyzing company’s
strength & weakness.
For example a companies strength may be low
cost manufacturing skill, excellent product
design, efficient distribution etc.,. Its weakness
may be lack of physical and financial resources.
A company must plan to exploit these strengths
to maximum and circumvent it’s weakness.
 Policies
A policy is a general guideline for decision
making.
Policy is a verbal, written or implied overall
guide, setting up boundaries that supply the
general limits and directions in which
managerial action will take place.
Ex1 Advertisement policy: to avoid cut- throat
competition with its rivals
Ex2 Recruitment policy: select the best
possible candidate to vacancies
Types of policies
 Advantages of Policies
Policies ensure uniformity of action at various
organization points which make actions more predictable
Since the subordinates need not consult superiors, it
speeds up decision.
Policies make easier for the superior to delegate more an
more authority to his subordinates because, he knows tha
whatever decision the subordinates make will be within
the boundaries of the policies.
Policies give a practical shape to the objectives by directin
the way in which predetermined objectives are to be
attained.
 Procedures
A procedure provides a detailed set of instructions
for performing a sequence of actions involved in
doing a certain piece of work.
Advantages of procedures.
They indicate a standard way of performing a task.
 They result in simplification and elimination of waste.
 Procedure improves the efficiency of employees.

 Procedure serves as a tool of control by enabling

managers to evaluate the performance of their
subordinates.
Policy v/s Procedure
 Methods
A method is a prescribed way in which one
step of procedure is to be performed.
It means an established manner of doing an
operation.
Methods help in increasing the effectiveness
and usefulness of procedures.
By improving methods, reduced fatigue,
better productivity and lower costs can be
achieved.
 Rules

The rules are the simplest and most specific type

of standing plans.
Rules are detailed and recorded instructions that
a specific action must or must not be performed
in a given situation. Rules are more rigid than
policies.
Rules generally pertain to the administrative area
of a procedure. Rules demand strict compliance.
Their violation is generally associated with some
sort of disciplinary action.
 Programmes
Are precise plans or definite steps in proper sequence
which need to be taken to discharge a given task.
It lays down the time to be taken for completion of each
step.
Essential ingredients are time phasing and budgeting.
Is a complex of objective, policies, procedures, task
assignments, steps to be taken, resources to be employed
and other elements to carry out a given course of action.
Single step in a programme is set up as a project
A schedule specifies the time when each series of actions
should take place.
 Budgets
A financial and/or quantitative statement
prepared prior to definite period time, of the
policy to be pursued during that period, for the
purpose of obtaining a given objective.
A budget is a statement of expected results
expressed in quantitative terms i.e. rupees, man
hours, product units etc.
It provides a standard by which actual
operations can be measured and variation could
be controlled.
The important budgets are sales budgets,
production budgets, cash budgets, and revenue
and expenses budgets.
 Steps in Planning:
Establishing Verifiable Goals or Set of
Goals to be Achieved.
Establishing Planning Premises.
- Internal and External premises.

- Tangible and Intangible premises.

- Controllable and non-controllable premises.

- Internal and External premises.
policies , programmes of
(Internal premises include sales forecasts,
the organization, skill of labor,
External premises may be Technological change, Population
Growth, Sociological factor, Govt policies & regulation etc..)
- Tangible and Intangible premises.
(Tangible examples: population growth, industry
demand, capital and resources. Intangible: political stability,
sociological factors, business and economic
environment)
- Controllable and non-controllable premises.
(uncontrollable factors: strikes, wars, natural calamities,
emergency, and legislation etc.
controllable factors: company’s advertising agency,
competence of management member’s skill of the
labor force, availability of resources in terms of
capital and labor,)
 Steps in Planning:
Deciding the Planning Period.
- Lead time in development & commercialization of new
product.
- Time required to recover capital investments or pay back
period.
- Length of commitments already made.
Finding Alternative Course of Action.
Evaluating and Selecting a Course of Action.
Developing Derived Plans.
Measuring and Controlling the Progress.
 Organization Definition

An organization can be defined as a social unit or

human grouping deliberately structured for the
purpose of attaining specific goals.
An organization can also be defined as the process
of identifying and grouping of the work to be
performed, defining and delegating responsibility
and authority and establishing relationships for the
purpose of enabling people to work most effectively
together in the accomplishment of their objectives.
 Characteristics of an Organization

Has a purpose, goal or goals.

Has a clear concept of major duties or activities to

achieve the purpose.
Classification of activities into jobs.

Establishment of relationship between these jobs.

 Nature of Organization

 People: An organization is basically made up of group

of people, i.e., an identifiable group of people
contributing their efforts towards the attainment of goals.
 Common purpose: Organization exist to achieve
certain objectives and people of an organization share
this common purpose.
 Co-ordination: There is a mechanism of co-ordination
among people and different part of the organization.
 Nature of Organization

• Authority: There are different hierarchy levels in an

organization which defines authority of people.
• Division of work: The total work of an organization
is divided into smaller activities in the form of
different functions & sub functions
• Environment: organization are part of a large
environment and therefore they are influenced by
external environment
 Purpose of Organization

To facilitate pattern of communication: By grouping activities

and people, structure(organization) facilitates communication
between people centered on their job activities.
To allocate authority and responsibility: It specifies who is to
direct whom and who is accountable for what results. The structure
helps the organization members to know what his role is and how it
relates to others role.
To locate decision centers: Organization structure determines the
location of decision making in the organization.
For example, a departmental store may leave pricing decision to the
lower level manager while in oil refinery pricing decision is at top
level.
To create proper balance: Organization structure creates the
proper balance and emphasis of activities. People responsible for
the enterprise success might be placed higher in the organization.
 Purpose of Organization
To stimulate creativity: Organization stimulates
independent, creative thinking and initiative by providing well-
defined areas of work with broad attitude of the development
of new and improved ways of doing things.
To encourage growth: The organization structure provide
framework within which an enterprise functions. If the
organization structure is flexible, it will help in meeting
challenges and creating opportunities for growth.
To make use of technological improvements: A sound
organization structure which is adoptable to changes can
make the best possible use of latest technology.
 Types of Organization
Based on official recognition
 Formalorganization
 Informal organization

Based on internal structure

 Line organization
 Functional organization
 Line & Staff organization

 Committee organization
 Differences between Formal & Informal Organization
Item FormalOrganization InformalOrganization
Origin Officialandstartedwith Unofficial&developed
definitepurpose naturally,basedon
individual&groupgoals

Structure Definitestructurewithclearly Noformalstructure

definedauthority&
responsibilityrelationship

Control Formalrules&regulation Groupnorms

Communication Formal&officialchannelsof Grapevine
communication
Size Cangrowtoverylargesize Generallyverysmall
 Line organization

It is the basic framework for the whole

organization.
It represents a direct vertical relationship
which authority flows.
This is a vertical structure one person
delegate’s authority to his subordinate & who
in turn delegates to his subordinate & so on.
 Line organization

The advantages of line organization are

Simplicity
Quick decision and speed of action.
Unity of control.
Clear division of authority and responsibility.
Discipline and better coordination
Direct communication.
 Line organization

The disadvantages of line organization are

The organization is rigid and inflexible
Being an autocratic system, managers may
become dictators and not leaders.
There is scope of favour-ism and nepotism.
Red-tape and bureaucracy.
Lack of specialization.
Line organization
 Functional Organization

In functional organization the specialists are

made available in the top positions
throughout the enterprise.
A functional in charge directs the
subordinates throughout the organization in
his particular area of business operation.
 Functional Organization

The advantages of functional organization

Specialization.
Reduces the burden on the top executives.
Offers greater scope for expansion.
A functional manager is required to have
expertise in one function only. This
Makes it easy for executive development.
 Functional Organization

The disadvantages of functional organization

Violates principles of unity of command.
The operation of functional organization is
too complicated.
It develops specialists rather than generalists.
Lack of coordination among functional
executives which delays decision making.
Functional Organization
 Line and Staff Organization

In line and staff organization, the line

authority remains the same as it does in the
line organization.
In addition, the specialists are attached to line
managers to advice them on important
matters.
The staff officials do not have any power of
command in the organization as they are
employed to provide expert advice to the line
 Line and Staff Organization

The advantages of line and staff organization:

Specialized knowledge
Reduction of burden on line managers.
Better decisions, as staff specialists help the
line managers
Unity of command
Flexible when compared to functional
organization.
 Line and Staff Organization

The disadvantages of line and staff organization:

Allocation of duties between line and staff is
not clear.
There is generally conflict between line and
staff executives.
Since staffs are not accountable, they may not
be performing well.
Difference between orientations of line and
staff. Line executive’s deals with in problem
Line and Staff Organization
COMMITTEES:
A committee is a group of people who have been
formally assigned some task or some problem for
their decision and implementation.
Classification of committees:
•Advisory committees
•Executive committees.
These two committees may have same individuals as
members. Their functions are separated by time, place,
and title.
•Standing committee
•Ad hoc task force
Advisory committees:

1. Committees are vested with staff authority

2. Only have a recommendation role and cannot
enforce implementation of their advice or
recommendation.
3. Examples of advisory committees formed in
business enterprises: works committees, sales
committees, finance committees etc.
Executive committees:

1. Vested with the line of authority

2. Not only take decisions but also enforce
decisions and thus perform a double role of
taking a decision and ordering its execution.
3. Example: Board of directors is an example of
an executive committee. Are also classified as
standing committees or ad-hoc task forces.
 Standing committees: Are formed to deal with
current organizational problem. Example: finance
committee in a company, loan approval committee
in a bank etc. Members of this committee are
chosen because of their title or position, instead of
individual qualifications or skills.
 Ad-hoc committees: Have a short duration,
dissolved after the task is over, or the problem is
solved and their members are chosen for their
skills and experience.
 STAFFING

The function of staffing is defined as:-

• “Filling and keeping filled various
positions in the organization structure”.
• This includes “identifying work force
requirements, inventorying the people
available, recruiting, selecting, placing,
training, promoting, apprising etc…
 Importance of staffing

• Staffing ensures higher productivity by placing the right

man in the right job.
• It helps to avoid disruption of production schedule due
to shortage of staff.
• It helps to prevent under utilization of personnel
through over manning and reduces cost of production.
• It identifies talented and competent people and places
them in correct position.
• It trains the people and helps them to move up in the
organizational structure.
 RECRUITMENT
Recruitment can be defined as the process of
identifying the sources for prospective candidates
and stimulate them to apply for the job.
i.e it is the process of attracting employees to the
company.
Before the process of recruitment, the management
should have proper plan on :
Number of employees to be recruited.
The qualification of employees required.
The time frame need to recruit.
The process of recruitment and the cost involved in it
depend on the size of the enterprise and the type of
persons to be recruited.
Sources of recruitment:-
The sources of recruitment can be broadly classified into
two categories:
Internal sources.
External sources.
Internal sources:
Internal sources involve transfer and promotion.
Transfer involves the shifting of an employee from one
job to another.
Many companies follow the practice of filling higher jobs
by promoting employees who are considered fit for such
positions.
Filling higher positions by promotion motivates
employees, boosts employee’s morale.
External Sources
Direct recruitment: An important source of
recruitment is direct recruitment by placing a
notice on the notice board of the enterprise
by specifying the details of the jobs available.
This is also known as recruitment at factory
gate.
Unsolicited applications: Many qualified
persons apply for employment to reputed
companies on their own initiative. Such
applications are known as unsolicited
applications.
External Sources
Advertising: Large enterprises particularly when the
vacancy is for higher post or there are large number of
applications use this source where advertisements are
made in local and national level newspapers.
Employment agencies: This is the good source of
recruitment for unskilled and semiskilled jobs. The
employment exchanges bring job givers in contact
with job seekers.
 SELECTION
Selection refers to evaluation of the candidates with respect to their
qualifications and the job requirements and those who satisfy the
requirements are only selected.
Selection criteria: these are established usually on the basis of current
and some future job requirements. These criteria’s include educational
qualifications, knowledge, skills, experience etc..
Application form: the candidates are required to complete an
application form. In this form applicant gives relevant personal data.(
qualification, specialization, experience, personal interests etc..) . The
applications are carefully scrutinized to decide the suitable applicants to
be called for next stage of selection.
• Screening interview: those who are selected on
the basis of application form are called for initial
screening interview.
• This interview is the most important means of
evaluating the poise or appearance of the
candidate. It is also used for obtaining informal
clarification given in the application form.
•Employment tests: for further assessment of a
candidate’s nature and abilities some tests are
conducted. These tests include
•Intelligence test.
•Proficiency and aptitude test.
•Vocational test.
•Personality test.
 • Group discussion: this test is conducted to
assess the candidate’s communication and
presentation skills, interpersonal skill, leadership
qualities and ability to pull on in a team work.
• Checking references: if candidate is found
satisfactory in the above tests, employer may like
to get some important personal details about the
candidate, such as his character, past history,
background etc..
 • Physical or medical examination: it is carried out
to assess the physical fitness of the candidate for the
present job.
• Final interview: this interview is conducted for
those who are ultimately selected for employment.
In this interview, the candidates are given an idea
about their future prospects within the organization.
• Appointment order: appointment orders are given
to finally selected candidates, giving the position
offered, scale of pay and other benefits and terms
and conditions of employment.