Measures of Variability

Levin and Fox

Chapter 4
Statistics for Political Science
 Variability
Limits of Central Tendencies: Mode, Mean, Median
They offer a limited view of data set.

Example: Weather in Honolulu and Phoenix

Same Mean Temperature: 75°

Variability?
But how are yearly temperatures distributed on the mean? What is the
range of yearly temperatures?
 Variability
But how are yearly temperatures distributed on the mean?
 Measures of Variability

Measures of variability tell us:

• The extent to which the scores differ from each other or how
spread out the scores are.

• How accurately the measure of central tendency describes the

distribution.

• The shape of the distribution.

 Measures of Variability

Some Definitions:

Population (universe) is the collection of things under consideration

Sample is a portion of the population selected for analysis

Statistic is a summary measure computed to describe a

characteristic of the sample
 Measures of Variability
Just what is variability?
Variability is the spread or dispersion of scores.

Measuring Variability
There are a few ways to measure variability and they include:

1) The Range
2) The Mean Deviation
3) The Standard Deviation
4) The Variance
 Variability

Measures of Variability

Range: The range is a measure of the distance between

highest and lowest.

R= H – L

Temperature Example:
Range:
Honolulu: 89° – 65° 24°
Phoenix: 106° – 41° 65°
 The Range

The simplest and most straightforward measurement of variation is the

range which measures variation in interval-ratio variables.

Range = highest score – lowest score

R=H–L
 Range: Examples

If the oldest person included in a study was 89 and the youngest was
18, then the range would be 71 years.

Or, if the most frequent incidences of disturbing the peace among 6

communities under study is 18 and the least frequent incidences
was 4, then the range is 14.
 Okay, so now you tell me the range…
This table indicates the number of
metropolitan areas, as defined Delaware 3
by the Census Bureau, in six
states.
Idaho 4

What is the range in the number Nebraska 4

metropolitan areas in these six
states?
Kansas 5
– R=H-L
Iowa 4
– R=9-3
– R=6
Montana 3

California 9
 Variance and Standard Deviation

Variance: is a measure of the dispersion of a sample (or how

closely the observations cluster around the mean [average]). Also
known as the mean of the squared deviations.

Standard Deviation: the square root of the variance, is the measure

of variation in the observed values (or variation in the clustering
around the mean).
 The Variance

Remember that the deviation is the distance of any given score from
its mean.

(X  X )
The variance takes into account every score.

But if we were to simply add them up, the plus and minus (positive and
negative) scores would cancel each other out because the sum of
actual deviations is always zero!

(X  X )  0
 The Variance
So, what we should we do?

We square the actual deviations and then add them together.

∑(X −X ) 2

– Remember: When you square a negative number it becomes

positive!

SO,

S2 = sum of squared deviations divided by the number of scores.

The variance provides information about the relative variability.

 Variance: Weeks on Unemployment:

Step 1: Calculate Step 2: Calculate Step 3: Calculate

the Mean Deviation Sum of square Dev

X Deviation:
(weeks) (X − X ) (X − X )2
(raw score from the
mean, squared)

9 9-5= 4 42 = 16
8 8-5=3 32 = 9
6 6-5=1 12 = 1
4 4-5=-1 -12 = 1
2 2-5=-3 -32 = 9
1 1-5=-4 -42 = 16

ΣX=30
χ= 30=5 2

6
∑(X −X ) = 52
 The Variance

The mean of the squared deviations is the same as the variance,

and can be symbolized by s2

2
∑(X − X )
s 2
=
N
where s 2  variance
 ( X  X ) 2
 sum of the squared deviations from the mean
N  total number of scores
 Variance: Weeks on Unemployment:

Step 1: Calculate Step 2: Calculate Step 3: Calculate Step 4: Calculate

the Mean Deviation Sum of square Dev the Mean of squared dev.

X Deviation: Variance:
(weeks) (X − X ) (X − X ) 2
2
∑(X − X )
(raw score from the s 2
=
mean, squared) N
9 9-5= 4 42 = 16
52
8 8-5=3 32 = 9 = 8.67
6 6-5=1 12 = 1 6
4 4-5=-1 -12 = 1
(weeks squared)
2 2-5=-3 -32 = 9
1 1-5=-4 -42 = 16

ΣX=30
2
χ= 30=5 ∑(X − X ) = 52
6
 What is a standard deviation?
Standard Deviation:
It is the typical (standard) difference (deviation) of an observation
from the mean.

Think of it as the average distance a data point is from the mean,

although this is not strictly true.
 What is a standard deviation?
Standard Deviation:
The standard deviation is calculated by taking the square root of the
variance.

(X − X )2
s= ∑ n
 Variance: Weeks on Unemployment:

Step 1: Calculate Step 2: Calculate Step 3: Calculate Step 4: Calculate Step 5: Calculate the
the Mean Deviation Sum of square Dev the Mean of squared dev. Square root of the Var.

X Deviation: Variance: Standard Deviation:

(weeks) (X − X ) (X − X ) 2
2 s=
(X − X )2
(X − X )
∑
s 2
=
∑ n
(square root of the variance)
(raw score from the
mean, squared) N
9 9-5= 4 42 = 16 52
8 8-5=3 32 = 9 = 8.67 8.67
6 6-5=1 12 = 1 6
4 4-5=-1 -12 = 1
(weeks squared)
2 2-5=-3 -32 = 9
1 1-5=-4 -42 = 16

ΣX=30 s = 2.94
2
χ= 30=5 ∑(X −X ) = 52
6
 Variance: Weeks on Unemployment:

Step 1: Calculate Step 2: Calculate Step 3: Calculate Step 4: Calculate Step 5: Calculate the
the Mean Deviation Sum of square Dev the Mean of squared dev. Square root of the Var.

X Deviation: Variance: Standard Deviation:

(weeks) (X − X ) (X − X ) 2
2 s =√Σ(X - χ )2
∑(X − X ) N
(raw score from the s2 =
mean, squared) N (square root of the variance)

9 9-5= 4 42 = 16 52 ____
8 8-5=3 32 = 9 = 8.67
6 √ 8.67
6 6-5=1 12 = 1
4 4-5=-1 -12 = 1
(weeks squared)
2 2-5=-3 -32 = 9
1 1-5=-4 -42 = 16

ΣX=30 s = 2.94
2
χ= 30=5 ∑(X −X ) = 52
6
Two Ways to Look at Standard Deviation: Sample and
Population
 The Variance

S2 = sum of squared deviations divided by the number of scores.

 Some Things to Remember about Sample Variance

Uses the deviation from the mean

Remember, the sum of the deviations always equals zero, so you

have to square each of the deviations

S2= sum of squared deviations divided by the number of scores

Provides information about the relative variability

 What is a standard deviation?

It is the typical (standard) difference (deviation) of an observation

from the mean.

Think of it as the average distance a data point is from the mean,

although this is not strictly true.
Two Ways to Look at Standard Deviation: Sample and
Population
 Variability

Weeks on Unemployment: Standard Deviation (S)

Thus, in this example, “the distribution deviates from the mean by nearly 3
weeks.” In other words, on average…the scores in this distribution
deviate from the mean by nearly 3 weeks.” (71)

Judges and Sentencing:

You are an attorney with a choice of judges:

Judge A: gives all defendants convicted of assault 24 months

Judge B: gives all defendants convicted of assault 6-months to 6 years
depending on priors.
 Prison Sentences: Judge A

Step 1: Calculate Step 2: Calculate Step 3: Calculate Step 4: Calculate Step 5: Calculate the
the Mean Deviation Sum of square Dev the Mean of squared dev. Square root of the Var.

X X-χ Deviation: Variance: Stand. Deviation:

(months) (X – χ)2 S2 =Σ(X – χ)2 S =√Σ(X - χ )2
(raw score from the mean,
squared) N N
(“the mean of the squared (square root of the variance)
deviation.”)

34 34-33= 1 12 = 1 24= 4.0 ____

30 30-33=-3 -32 = 9 6 √ 4.0
31 31-33=-2 -22 = 4 (months squared)
33 33-33=0 02 = 0
36 36-33=3 32 = 9
34 34-33=1 12 = 1

ΣX=198 Σ(X – χ)2 = 24 S = 2.0

χ= 198= 33
6
 Prison Sentences: Judge B

Step 1: Calculate Step 2: Calculate Step 3: Calculate Step 4: Calculate Step 5: Calculate the
the Mean Deviation Sum of square Dev the Mean of squared dev. Square root of the Var.

X X-χ Deviation: Variance: Stand. Deviation:

(months) (X – χ)2 S2 =Σ(X – χ)2
(raw score from the mean,
N
squared)
(“the mean of the squared S =√Σ(X - χ )2
deviation.”)
N
(square root of the variance)

26 36-30= -6 -62 = 36 402= 67.0 ____

43 43-30=13 132 = 169 6 √ 67.0
22 22-30=-8 -82 = 64 (months squared)
35 35-30=5 52 = 25
20 20-30=-10 102 = 100
34 34-30=4 42 = 8
ΣX=180 Σ(X – χ)2 S = 8.18
χ=180= 30 =402
6
 Variability
Judges and Sentences:
Judge A has a larger mean, smaller variance and standard
deviation. “Judge A seems harsher but fairer. Judge B is more
lenient but more inconsistent.” (74)

Thus Judge A would be a better judge to face. Their mean is larger

(so you will get a longer sentence) but are less likely to get longer
sentence than if you faced Judge B.
 Standard Deviation

Is the square root of the variance.

Uses the same units of measurement as the raw scores.

Tells how much scores deviate below and above the mean
 Standard Deviation

Standard Deviation: Applications

Standard deviation also allows us to:

1) Measure the baseline of a frequency polygon.

2) Find the distance between raw scores and the mean – a
standardized method that permits comparisons between raw scores
in the distribution – as well as between different distributions.
 Standard Deviation

Standard Deviation: Baseline of a Frequency Polygon.

The baseline of a frequency polygon can be measured in units of standard
deviation.

Example:
= 80
sX= 5

Then, the raw score 85 lies

one Standard Deviation
above the mean (+1s).
 Standard Deviation

Standard Deviation: The Normal Range

Unless highly skewed, approximately two-thirds of scores within a
distribution will fall within the one standard deviation above and
below the mean.
nge
Example: Reading Levels R a
Words per minute. al
orm
N
X = 120
s = 25
 Standard Deviation

The deviation (definitional) formula for the population standard

deviation

X  X 
2


N

The larger the standard deviation the more variability there is

in the scores

The standard deviation is somewhat less sensitive to extreme

outliers than the range (as N increases)
 Standard Deviation

The deviation (definitional) formula for the sample standard deviation

X  X 
2

S
N

What’s the difference between this formula and the

population standard deviation?

In the first case, all the Xs represent the entire population. In the
second case, the Xs represent a sample.
 Standard Deviation

Calculating S using the Raw-Score Formula

  X
2

 X 2

N
S
N

To calculate ΣX2 you square all the scores first and then sum them
 
To calculate (ΣX)2 you sum all the scores first and then square them
 The Raw-Score Formula: Example

  X
2

X X2 X 2

N
S
21 441 N

25 625 134 2
3698 
24 576 S 5
30 900 5

34 1151 3698  3591.2

S
X = 134 X2 = 3698 5

S  21.36  4.62
 Application to Normal Distribution

Knowing the standard deviation

you can describe your sample
more accurately

Look at the inflection points of the

distribution
 A Note about Transformations:

Adding or subtracting just shifts the distribution, without changing the

variation (variance).

Multiplying or dividing changes the variability, but it is a multiple of the

transformation

Transformations can be useful when scores are skewed from the

“mean” that the researcher prefers to work with. Also,
transformations can be helpful when comparing multiple sets of
scores.
Standard Deviation: Example

X  X 
2
X ( X −X )
21 -5.8   33.64  
25 -1.8   3.24  
24 -2.8   7.84  
30 3.2   10.24  
34 7.2   51.84  
26.8 0 106.8

106.8
S  21.36  4.62
5
 A note on N vs. n and N vs. n+1

N is used to represent the number of scores in a population. Some

authors also use it to represent the number of scores in a sample as
well.

n is used to represent the number of scores in a sample.

When calculating the variance and standard deviation, you will

sometimes see N + 1 or n + 1 instead of N or n.

N+1 or n+1 is used by many social scientists when computing from a

sample with the intention of generalizing to a larger population.
N+1 provides a better estimate and is the formula used by SPSS.
 ŝ Estimating the population
standard deviation from a sample

S, the sample standard, is usually a little smaller than the

population standard deviation. Why?

The sample mean minimizes the sum of squared deviations

(SS). Therefore, if the sample mean differs at all from the
population mean, then the SS from the sample will be an
underestimate of the SS from the population

Therefore, statisticians alter the formula of the sample standard

deviation by subtracting 1 from N
 Variance is Error in Predictions

The larger the variability, the larger the differences between the
mean and the scores, so the larger the error when we use the mean
to predict the scores

Error or error variance: average error between the predicted mean

score and the actual raw scores

Same for the population: estimate of population variance

 Summarizing Research Using Variability

Remember, the standard deviation is most often the measure of

variability reported.

The more consistent the scores are (i.e., the smaller the variance), the
stronger the relationship.
Chapter 4: Review
 Review: Measures of Variability
Just what is variability?
Variability is the spread or dispersion of scores.

Measuring Variability
There are a few ways to measure variability and they include:

1) The Range
2) The Mean Deviation
3) The Standard Deviation
4) The Variance
 Review: The Range

Measures of Variability

Range: The range is a measure of the distance between

highest and lowest.

R= H – L

Temperature Example:
Range:
Honolulu: 89° – 65° 24°
Phoenix: 106° – 41° 65°
 Review: Variance and Standard Deviation

Variance: is a measure of the dispersion of a sample (or how

closely the observations cluster around the mean [average])

Standard Deviation: the square root of the variance, is the measure

of variation in the observed values (or variation in the clustering
around the mean).
 Review: The Variance

Remember that the deviation is the distance of any given score from
its mean.

(X  X )
The variance takes into account every score.

But if we were to simply add them up, the plus and minus (positive and
negative) scores would cancel each other out because the sum of
actual deviations is always zero!

(X  X )  0
 Review: The Variance
So, what we should we do?

We square the actual deviations and then add them together.

∑(X −X ) 2

– Remember: When you square a negative number it becomes

positive!

SO,

S2 = sum of squared deviations divided by the number of scores.

The variance provides information about the relative variability.

 Review: Variance: Weeks on Unemployment:

Step 1: Calculate Step 2: Calculate Step 3: Calculate

the Mean Deviation Sum of square Dev

X Deviation:
(weeks) (X − X ) (X − X )2
(raw score from the
mean, squared)

9 9-5= 4 42 = 16
8 8-5=3 32 = 9
6 6-5=1 12 = 1
4 4-5=-1 -12 = 1
2 2-5=-3 -32 = 9
1 1-5=-4 -42 = 16

ΣX=30
χ= 30=5 2

6
∑(X −X ) = 52
 Review: The Variance

The mean of the squared deviations is the same as the variance,

and can be symbolized by s2

2
∑(X − X )
s 2
=
N
where s 2  variance
 ( X  X ) 2
 sum of the squared deviations from the mean
N  total number of scores
 Review: Variance: Weeks on Unemployment:

Step 1: Calculate Step 2: Calculate Step 3: Calculate Step 4: Calculate

the Mean Deviation Sum of square Dev the Mean of squared dev.

X Deviation: Variance:
(weeks) (X − X ) (X − X ) 2
2
∑(X − X )
(raw score from the s 2
=
mean, squared) N
9 9-5= 4 42 = 16
52
8 8-5=3 32 = 9 = 8.67
6 6-5=1 12 = 1 6
4 4-5=-1 -12 = 1
(weeks squared)
2 2-5=-3 -32 = 9
1 1-5=-4 -42 = 16

ΣX=30
2
χ= 30=5 ∑(X − X ) = 52
6
 Review: Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation:
It is the typical (standard) difference (deviation) of an observation
from the mean.

Think of it as the average distance a data point is from the mean,

although this is not strictly true.
 Review: Standard Deviation?
Standard Deviation:
The standard deviation is calculated by taking the square root of the
variance.

(X − X )2
s= ∑ n
 Review: Standard Deviation: Weeks on Unemployment:

Step 1: Calculate Step 2: Calculate Step 3: Calculate Step 4: Calculate Step 5: Calculate the
the Mean Deviation Sum of square Dev the Mean of squared dev. Square root of the Var.

X Deviation: Variance: Standard Deviation:

(weeks) (X − X ) (X − X ) 2
2 s=
(X − X )2
(X − X )
∑
s 2
=
∑ n
(square root of the variance)
(raw score from the
mean, squared) N
9 9-5= 4 42 = 16 52
8 8-5=3 32 = 9 = 8.67 8.67
6 6-5=1 12 = 1 6
4 4-5=-1 -12 = 1
(weeks squared)
2 2-5=-3 -32 = 9
1 1-5=-4 -42 = 16

ΣX=30 s = 2.94
2
χ= 30=5 ∑(X −X ) = 52
6