PART III:

Frameworks and
Principles Behind
our Moral
Disposition

Zita M. Corpuz
Framework

 can be defined as a basic structure underlying a

system or concept.

 In Ethics, it refers to a set of assumptions, concepts,

values and practices that constitutes a way of viewing
reality.

 A worldview or a held theory.

LESSON I: BASIC THEORIES AS FRAMEWORKS IN ETHICS
 It is important to learn the basic moral theories which
are espoused to dictate one’s moral disposition.

 3 general/fundamental subject areas in the study of morality:

1) Meta-Ethics - branch of ethics that talks about the meaning

reference and truth values of moral judgement.

2) Normative Ethics –examines ethical norms, that is, those

guidelines about what is right, worthwhile, virtuous or just.
(prescriptive in nature)

3) Applied Ethics – attempts to determine the ethically correct

course of action in specific realms of human action.
Meta Ethics
 Cognitivism or non-Cognitivism
 Universalism vs. Relativism
 Empiricism vs. Rationalism vs. Intuitionism

Normative Ethics
 Deontology
 Teleology
 Virtue Ethics

Applied Ethics
 Bioethics
 Environmental Ethics
 Business Ethics
 Sexual Ethics
 Social Ethics
 Normative Ethics

Classifications of normative ethical theories:

1) Deontology
• an ethical system that bases morality on independent moral
rules or duties.
• came from the Greek word deon, which means “duty”, implying
the foundational nature of man’s duties or moral rules
• also called nonconsequentialism – the system’s principles are
submitted as obligatory, regardless of the consequences that
actions might produce.
 Meta-Ethics
 Classifications:
1) Cognitivism or non-Cognitivism
-Cognitivism (forms are moral realism and ethical subjectivism)
-Non-cognitivism (Emotivism)

2) Universalism vs. Relativism

-Moral universalism
-Moral relativism

3) Empiricism vs. Rationalism vs. Intuitionism

-Moral empiricism-moral facts are known through observation and experience.
-Moral rationalism-moral facts/principles are knowable(a priori), that is be reason
alone without reference to experience.
-Moral intuitionism-moral truths are knowable by intuition that is by immediate
instinctive knowledge without reference to any evidence.
 Normative Ethics
Classifications of normative ethical theories:

2) Teleology
• Moral system that determines the moral values of actions by their
outcomes or results.
• From the Greek word telos which means “end”.
• Takes into account the end result of the action as the exclusive
consideration of its morality.
• The most famous form is consequentialism – a cost benefit evaluation of
the action’s consequences. Ex. Heinz broke into the lab to avail of the
medicine for his ailing wife.
• explains things through what they do or are “meant” to do – ex. A knife is
meant for cutting; fruit trees exist to provide food for people;
Classifications of normative ethical theories:

3) Virtue Ethics
• Places emphasis on developing good habits of
character like kindness and generosity and avoiding
bad character traits, or vices such as greed or hatred.
• Molds individuals to habitually act in a virtuous
manner.
 Applied Ethics

Applied ethical issues classified into various subfields:

1) Bioethics
• concerns ethical issues pertaining to life, biomedical researches,
medicines, health care and medical profession.
• Ex. Controversies about surrogate mothering, genetic manipulation of
fetuses, stem cell research, abortion, euthanasia, patient rights, patient’s
records, etc.

2) Environmental Ethics
• Deals with moral issues concerning nature, ecosystems and its nonhuman
contents.
• Ex. Sustainable development.
 Applied Ethics
 Applied ethical issues classified into various subfields:

3) Business Ethics
• Examines moral principles concerning business environment
• Involves issues about corporate practices, policies, business behaviors and the conducts
and relationships of individuals in the organizations.

4) Sexual Ethics
 Studies issues about sexuality and human sexual behavior.
 Examines topics like homosexuality, lesbianism, polygamy, pre-marital sex, extra marital
sex, etc.

5) Social Ethics- focuses on what may be deemed as proper behavior for people as a whole.
Issues under this are about racial discrimination, death penalty, nuclear weapon production,
welfare rights, etc.
LESSON II: VIRTUE ETHICS
The contemporary theory in Ethics called Virtue Ethics is
said to have started with Socrates, Plato and Aristotle.

Thomas Aquinas (medieval era) revived, enhanced and

“christianized” the Greek virtue ethics.

This lesson will discuss these three Greek philosophers

and Aquinas’ ethical theories and attempt to
philosophically analyze them.
Virtue Ethics

A moral philosophy that teaches that an action is right

if it is an action that a virtuous person would perform in
the same situations.

A moral philosophy that emphasizes developing good

habits of character and avoiding bad character traits or
vices.
Socrates and Plato’s Moral Philosophy

Central to Plato’s philosophy is his Theory of Forms.

The highest of all forms is the form of the good.

Those who comprehend the Good will always do good actions.

Bad actions are performed out of not knowing the Good.

To know the good, nonetheless, requires an austere and

intellectually meticulous way of life.
Aristotle’s Ethics

The Eudemian Ethics and Nicomachean Ethics.

The Nicomachean Ethics has been regarded as the Ethics

of Aristotle since the beginning of the Christian era.

His ethical system may be termed “self realization” – when

someone acts in line with his nature or end (telos). And
thus realizes his full potential.
 Aristotle’s “Telos”

 (From the Greek “teaoc” is an end or purpose.

 The essence or essential nature of beings, including humans, lay not at

their cause (or beginning) but at their end (“telos”).

 Thus a being’s essence is its potential fulfillment or “telos” (as the

essence of a seedling is to become a plant)

 The essence or “telos” of a human being is rationality and thus, a life of

contemplation (a.k.a. Philosophy) is the best kind of life for true human
flourishing.
Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics

All humans seek happiness (well being), but in different ways.

True happiness is tied to the purpose or end (telos) of human life.

The essence (telos) of human beings (that which separates them as

a specie) is Reason.

Reason employed in achieving happiness leads to moral virtues

(e.g. courage, temperance, justice and prudence) and intellectual
virtues (e.g. science, art, practical wisdom, theoretical wisdom).
 Happiness and Virtues

 Aristotle believes that the ultimate human goal is self-realization.

 This entails achieving one’s natural purpose by functioning or living consistently with
human nature. (3 natures of man: the vegetable/physical, animal or emotional and
rational or mental)

 Accomplishing it produces happiness, whereas inability to realize it leads to sadness,

frustration and ultimately poor life.

 Living in accordance with reason is viewed as vital in self-realization or developing one’s

potential.

 This self realization – the awareness of our nature and the development of our
potentials – is the key to human happiness.
 ETHICS for Aristotle

 Is the inquiry into the human good.

 Thus the purpose of studying Ethics is to make ourselves

good.

 This human good is eudaimonia or happiness.

 Aristotle considers happiness as the summum bonum – the

greatest good of all human life.
Virtue as Habit

Aristotle’s idea of happiness should also be understood in the

sense of human flourishing.

This flourishing is attained by the habitual practice of habitual

practice of moral and intellectual excellences or virtues.
Virtues and the Golden Mean

Acting in a reasonable manner is done when we choose to act in a

way that neither goes to excess nor defect.

Excess and defect normally indicate vice.

Virtue lies neither in the vice of deficiency nor in the vice of excess.

Happiness is a state of character manifested in choice and action

resting in the golden mean, resolved by the prescription that a wise
person would determine.
The Golden Mean therefore is the moral
virtue between two less desirable
extremes.

Courage is the golden mean between cowardice

(deficiency) and tactless rashness (excess)

Temperance is the mean between gluttony (excess) and

extreme frugality (deficiency).

Both overindulgence and denying oneself of bodily

pleasures make one less happy; whereas practicing
temperance makes one virtuous and fulfilled.
 “Phronesis” and Practice

 phronesis - the intellectual virtue of

practical wisdom.

 The kind of moral knowledge which

guides us to what is appropriate in
conjunction with moral virtue.
An evaluation of the Greek Philosophers’ Ethical theories

Aristotle’s concept of virtue is more active that that of Plato’s.

Plato equates virtue with mere knowledge of the Form of the

Good; knowing right.

Aristotle considers virtue not as innate or something taught by a

teacher to a student, but that which is acquired by practice and
lost by disuse; it is therefore more active and better since it is
not mere grasping of the Good but doing right.
 THOMAS AQUINAS

o 1225-1274

o The Angelic Doctor and the Prince of Scholastics.

o An Italian Philosopher/theologian who ranks among

the most important thinkers of the medieval time
period.
 THOMAS AQUINAS ETHICS

o In Ethics, Aquinas depends heavily on Aristotle.

o Like the Greek Philosopher, Aquinas believes that all actions are
directed towards ends and that happiness is the final end.

o Aquinas thinks that happiness consists of activities in accordance with

virtue. But he declares that ultimate happiness is not attainable in the
present life, for happiness in the present life remains imperfect.

o True happiness then is to be found in the souls of the blessed in

heaven or in beatitude with God.
 THE NATURAL LAW

o Central also in Aquinas’ Ethics is his typology of Laws.

o By the term “Law”, he means an ordinance of reason for the

common good, promulgated by someone who has care for the
community.

o Aquinas “Laws” should also be understood in terms of “rules and

measures” for people’s conduct as “rational patterns or forms.”

o Obedience to the law is thus viewed as participating/being in

conformity with the pattern or form.
 THE NATURAL LAW

Four primary types of Law:

1) The eternal law – refers to the natural plan of God by which all
creation is ordered. To this law, everything in the universe is
subject.

2) Natural law – is that aspect of eternal law which is accessible to

human reason.
 Because mankind is part of the eternal law, there is a portion that
relates specifically to human conduct.
 This is the moral law – to which people are subject by their nature
ordering them to do good and avoid evil.
 THE NATURAL LAW

Four primary types of Law:

3) Human law - refers to the positive laws. For natural law to

be adhered to, more exact and forceful provisions of human
law are helpful.

4) Divine law - a law of revelation, disclosed through sacred

text/scriptures and the Church which is also directed toward
man’s eternal end.
 THE NATURAL LAW

o The type of law that is primarily significant in ethics is the Natural

law.

o This natural law is knowable by natural reason.

o Our practical reason naturally comprehends that good is to be

promoted and evil to be avoided.

o Synderesis ( our conscience - faculty of moral insight), we also

have natural inclinations to some specific goods.
 THE NATURAL LAW

3 sets of (natural) inclinations:

1) To survive;

2) To reproduce and educate offspring;

3) To know the truth about God and to live peacefully in society.

Ex. Aquinas’ views on the ends of marriage such as procreation.
The principle is simple: the closer an action
approaches our end, the more moral it is; the
further it departs, the more immoral it is.
 THE NATURAL LAW

Aquinas evaluates human actions on the basis not only of their

conformity to the natural law but also of their specific features:

3 aspects by which the morality of an act can be determined:

1) Species of an action – refers to its kind; called the object of the action;
holds that for an action to be moral, it must be good or at least not bad
in species.
2) Accidents – refer to the circumstances surrounding the action. Example –
for Christians to profess their belief in inappropriate situation.
3) End – stands for the agent’s intention. An act might be unjust through its
intention.
 THE NATURAL LAW

 Happiness, Moral Virtues and Theological Virtues

 Aquinas believes that all actions are directed towards and that
happiness is the final end.

 Happiness is not equated with pleasure, material possessions, honor

or any sensual good, but consists of activities equated to habits of
choice and virtue.

 Virtue according to Aquinas is “a good habit bearing an activity”.

 THE NATURAL LAW

Habits are firm dispositions or “hard to eradicate” qualities that

dispose us to act in a particular manner.

Not all habits are virtue. Only those that incline us towards our
good or end are virtue.

Acquired habits – these involve consistent and deliberate effort

to do an act time and again despite obstructions.

Infused habits – are independent of this process as they are

directly instilled by God in our faculties. Ex. Our divine gifts.
 THE NATURAL LAW

2 kinds of infused habits:

1) Moral virtues – their objects are not God himself but

activities such as prudence, fortitude, temperance and justice.

2) Theological virtues – concerned directly with God. These

provide us true knowledge and desire of God and his will such
as faith, love, charity
KANT AND RIGHTS THEORY
 Immanuel Kant

o 1724-1804

o A German thinker regarded by many as the most

significant philosopher in the modern era.

o His major contributions to Ethics can be found in his 2

works : The Foundation of the Metaphysics for Morals
and the Critique of Practical Wisdom.
 KANTIAN ETHICS

 Kant categorically rejects that ethical judgements

are based on feelings.

 His ethical theory instead bases moral judgments

on reason alone.

 Reason for him is what deems an action ethical

or otherwise.
 Good will

 Kant believes that when we wish to determine the moral status of an

action, we consult reason.

 If an act accords with reason, we must do it. If not, we must avoid it.

 Kant believes that one of the functions and capacities of our reason is
to produce good will, which is the highest good and the condition of
all other goods.

 Kant teaches that only good will is intrinsically good. That is it is the
only good without qualification; good will is good in itself.
 Kant does not agree with many ethicists that happiness is the
summum bonum or the highest good.

 Happiness for him can be corrupting and may be worthless or

even positively evil when not combined with a good will.

 Same way as intellectual eminence, talents , character and

fortune can be cannot be intrinsically good for they can be
used for bad ends.
 Acting from a sense of duty

 person of good will according to Kant is the person who acts from a
sense of duty.

 It means exhibiting good will even in the face of difficulty.

 Sense of duty means such is a voluntary action, not a forced or

compelled one.
person of good will according to Kant is the person who acts
from a sense of duty.

It means exhibiting good will even in the face of difficulty.

Sense of duty means such is a voluntary action, not a forced

or compelled one.

It must be an act done not from “inclination” but from a

sense of duty dictated by reason.
 Inclination refers to the feeling that pushes us to select a particular option
or make a particular decision.

 Duty or obligation, on the other hand is that which we ought to despite our
inclination or taste to do otherwise.
 Kant sees morality as essentially connected with duty and
obligation.

 Acts done from the motive of duty and those in accordance with
duty.

 From the motive of duty - are moral acts (non-consequential)

 “in accordance with duty” – example – respecting one’s parents

for expediency or solely in obedience of custom; paying one’s debt
for fear of being sued; displaying honesty to receive an award.
Categorical imperative

Kant believes that there is a test to find out what one’s duty is in a particular
set of circumstances.

1) It is one’s duty as rational being to act on principle of maxim as contrasted

to simply act on impulse.

*actions on impulse ex. – a man who wants to financially help a certain

lady who is financially because he likes her for he might not want to give the
same assistance to another woman in an exactly similar situation because he
does not happen to like her.
*Actions on maxim or principle ex. – a man who gives relief to a total
stranger.
 Maxim is a general rule or principle which serves as a guide to action.
 Kant is concerned with maxims that are moral, those dictated by reason
and thus imperative force ( a command of reason).

 Examples:

“Be honest always.”

“Don’t always shoot the ball when you get it.”

“don’t wear the wedding gown before the wedding.”

“When in doubt render a salute.”

 Hypothetical imperative

 Involves being true only under some conditions and therefore not
universally true or valid.

 It directs one to behave in certain manners on the condition that one seeks
specified goals. Ex. If you wish to pass, study hard.

 States, “If you want to attain a certain end, sct in such-and-such a way.”

 Some hypothetical imperatives are concerned with mere prudential actions

– a rule for obtaining desired ends.

 Simply a rule accepted not on its own merits.

Categorical imperative VS. Hypothetical imperative

 C.I. demands action without qualification, without ifs, without

regard to the consequence such an act may produce; is
accepted on its own merits

 Hypothetical imperative is both contingent and derivative.

Contingent – or conditional
Derivative – acceptance of it depends on one’s wish/desire.
Kant provides various formulations of the categorical imperative.

1) Universalizability formulation – “ act only on that maxim through

which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal
law.”
 A person ought always to behave as if his course of conduct were to
become a universal code of behavior.

2) The end-in-itself” formulation - “act as to use humanity, both in your

own person and in the person of every other, always at the same time as
an end, never simply as a means.
 Respect persons as ends in themselves, not only as a
means/instruments to further ends.
Rights Theory
 The notion that in order for a society to be efficacious, government must
approach the making and enforcement of laws with the right intention in
respect to the end goals of the society that it governs.

 Members of society agree to give up some freedom for the protection enjoyed
by organized society, but governments cannot infringe upon the rights that
citizens have been promised.

 When applied to war, rights theory states that in order for a war to be deemed
morally justifiable, the intention of entering into war ought to be right in
relation to human rights.

 Kant principle of rights theory thus teaches that it is not merely the outcome
of actions that is significant but also the reasoning behind them.
Rights Based Ethics
 A broad moral theory in which Kant’s principle of rights theory is included.

 The concept of rights based ethics: “there are some rights both positive
and negative, that all humans have based only on the fact that they are
human.

 These rights can be natural or conventional.

 Natural rights – are those that are moral.

 Conventional rights – are those that are created by humans and reflect
society’s values.
 Examples of Rights Based Ethics System

a. The right to life i. The right of individuals or

b. The right to liberty organizations to express opinions or
c. The right to pursue share information freely in written
happiness medium (right of expression)
d. The right to a jury trial j. The right to come together and
e. The right to a lawyer meet in order to achieve goals (right
f. The right to express ideas or of peaceful assembly)
opinions with freedom as an k. The right to be informed of what
individual (freedom of law has been broken if arrested.
expression) etc.
g. The right to marry
h. The right to work
 The United States is said to be founded upon a Rights Based Ethics
system in which citizens are held to have certain unalienable rights.

 John Locke ( Treaties of Civil Government) is one of the supporters

of this system, which takes the viewpoint of what the ideal world
looks like.

 The Bill of Rights and the UDHR are manifestations of a Rights Based
Ethical System.

 A right – is a justified claim that individuals and groups can make

upon other individuals or upon society
 Legal Right vs. Moral Right

 What is legal is not always moral and what is moral is not

necessarily legal in a particular country.

Moral right –
Legal right –
 what is ought to be
 rights that are “on the books”
 represents the natural law
 embody the conventional
 Right that exists prior to
positive law.
and independently from
 Denotes all the rights found
their legal counterparts.
within existing legal codes.
 Ex. The right of individuals
 Ex. Right to due process of law
to organize – like the blacks
of South Africa.