CHAPTER  

ONE

PHYSICAL  WORLD

1.1 WHAT IS PHYSICS ?

Humans have always been curious about the world around
them. The night sky with its bright celestial objects has
fascinated humans since time immemorial. The regular
1.1 What is physics ?
repetitions of the day and night, the annual cycle of seasons,
1.2 Scope and excitement of
the eclipses, the tides, the volcanoes, the rainbow have always
physics
been a source of wonder. The world has an astonishing variety
1.3 Physics, technology and of materials and a bewildering diversity of life and behaviour.
society The inquiring and imaginative human mind has responded
1.4 Fundamental forces in to the wonder and awe of nature in different ways. One kind
nature of response from the earliest times has been to observe the
1.5 Nature of physical laws physical environment carefully, look for any meaningful
Summary patterns and relations in natural phenomena, and build and
Exercises use new tools to interact with nature. This human endeavour
led, in course of time, to modern science and technology.
The word Science originates from the Latin verb Scientia
meaning ‘to know’. The Sanskrit word Vijnan and the Arabic
word Ilm convey similar meaning, namely ‘knowledge’.
Science, in a broad sense, is as old as human species. The
early civilisations of Egypt, India, China, Greece, Mesopotamia
and many others made vital contributions to its progress.
From the sixteenth century onwards, great strides were made
in science in Europe. By the middle of the twentieth century,
science had become a truly international enterprise, with
many cultures and countries contributing to its rapid growth.
What is Science and what is the so-called Scientific
Method ? Science is a systematic attempt to understand
natural phenomena in as much detail and depth as possible,
and use the knowledge so gained to predict, modify and
control phenomena. Science is exploring, experimenting and
predicting from what we see around us. The curiosity to learn
about the world, unravelling the secrets of nature is the first
step towards the discovery of science. The scientific method
involves  several  interconnected  steps  :  Systematic
observations, controlled experiments, qualitative and

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2 PHYSICS

quantitative reasoning,   mathematical Physics is a basic discipline in the category

modelling,  prediction  and  verification  or of Natural Sciences, which also includes other
falsification  of  theories.  Speculation  and disciplines like Chemistry and Biology. The word
conjecture also have a place in science; but Physics comes from a Greek word meaning
ultimately, a scientific theory, to be acceptable, nature. Its Sanskrit equivalent is Bhautiki that
must be verified by relevant observations or is used to refer to the study of the physical world.
experiments. There is much philosophical A precise definition of this discipline is neither
debate about the nature and method of science possible nor necessary. We can broadly describe
that we need not discuss here. physics as a study of the basic laws of nature
The interplay of theory and observation (or and their manifestation in different natural
experiment) is basic to the progress of science. phenomena. The scope of physics is described
Science is ever dynamic. There is no ‘final’ briefly in the next section. Here we remark on
theory  in  science  and  no  unquestioned two principal thrusts in physics : unification
authority among scientists. As observations and reduction.
improve in detail and precision or experiments In Physics, we attempt to explain diverse
yield new results, theories must account for physical phenomena in terms of a few concepts
them, if necessary, by introducing modifications. and laws. The effort is to see the physical world
Sometimes the modifications may not be drastic
as manifestation of some universal laws in
and may lie within the framework of existing
different domains and conditions. For example,
theory. For example, when Johannes Kepler
the same law of gravitation (given by Newton)
(1571-1630) examined the extensive data on
describes the fall of an apple to the ground, the
planetary motion collected by Tycho Brahe
motion of the moon around the earth and the
(1546-1601), the planetary circular orbits in
heliocentric theory (sun at the centre of the motion of planets around the sun. Similarly, the
solar system) imagined by Nicolas Copernicus basic laws of electromagnetism (Maxwell’s
(1473–1543) had to be replaced by elliptical equations) govern all electric and magnetic
orbits to fit the data better. Occasionally, phenomena. The attempts to unify fundamental
however, the existing theory is simply unable forces of nature (section 1.4) reflect this same
to explain new observations. This causes a quest for unification.
major upheaval in science. In the beginning of A related effort is to derive the properties of a
the twentieth century, it was realised that bigger, more complex, system from the properties
Newtonian  mechanics,  till  then  a  very and interactions of its constituent simpler parts.
successful theory, could not explain some of the This approach is called reductionism and is
most basic features of atomic phenomena. at the heart of physics. For example, the subject
Similarly, the then accepted wave picture of light of thermodynamics, developed in the nineteenth
failed to explain the photoelectric effect properly. century, deals with bulk systems in terms of
This led to the development of a radically new macroscopic quantities such as temperature,
theory (Quantum Mechanics) to deal with atomic internal energy, entropy, etc. Subsequently, the
and molecular phenomena. subjects  of  kinetic  theory  and  statistical
Just as a new experiment may suggest an mechanics interpreted these quantities in terms
alternative theoretical model, a theoretical of the properties of the molecular constituents
advance may suggest what to look for in some of  the  bulk  system.    In  particular,  the
experiments. The result of experiment of temperature was seen to be related to the average
scattering of alpha particles by gold foil, in 1911 kinetic energy of molecules of the system.
by Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937) established
the nuclear model of the atom, which then 1.2 SCOPE AND EXCITEMENT OF PHYSICS
became the basis of the quantum theory of We can get some idea of the scope of physics by
hydrogen atom given in 1913 by Niels Bohr looking at its various sub-disciplines. Basically,
(1885–1962). On the other hand, the concept of there are two domains of interest : macroscopic
antiparticle was first introduced theoretically by and microscopic. The macroscopic domain
Paul Dirac (1902–1984) in 1930 and confirmed includes phenomena at the laboratory, terrestrial
two years later by the experimental discovery of and astronomical scales. The microscopic domain
positron (antielectron) by Carl Anderson. includes  atomic,  molecular  and  nuclear

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PHYSICAL WORLD 3

phenomena*. Classical  Physics deals mainly chemical process, etc., are problems of interest
with macroscopic phenomena and includes in thermodynamics.
subjects like Mechanics, Electrodynamics, The microscopic domain of physics deals with
Optics and Thermodynamics. Mechanics the constitution and structure of matter at the
founded on Newton’s laws of motion and the law minute scales of atoms and nuclei (and even
of gravitation is concerned with the motion (or
lower scales of length) and their interaction with
equilibrium) of particles, rigid and deformable
different probes such as electrons, photons and
bodies, and general systems of particles. The
propulsion of a rocket by a jet of ejecting gases, other elementary particles. Classical physics is
propagation of water waves or sound waves in inadequate to handle this domain and Quantum
air, the equilibrium of a bent rod under a load, Theory is currently accepted as the proper
etc., are problems of mechanics. Electrodynamics framework   for   explaining   microscopic
deals with electric and magnetic phenomena phenomena. Overall, the edifice of physics is
associated with charged and magnetic bodies. beautiful and imposing and you will appreciate
Its basic laws were given by Coulomb, Oersted, it more as you pursue the subject.

Fig. 1.1 Theory and experiment go hand in hand in physics and help each other’s progress. The alpha scattering
experiments of Rutherford gave the nuclear model of the atom.

Ampere and Faraday, and encapsulated by You can now see that the scope of physics is
Maxwell in his famous set of equations. The truly vast. It covers a tremendous range of
motion of a current-carrying conductor in a magnitude of physical quantities like length,
magnetic field, the response of a circuit to an ac mass, time, energy, etc. At one end, it studies
voltage (signal), the working of an antenna, the phenomena at the very small scale of length
propagation of radio waves in the ionosphere, etc., -14
(10 m or even less) involving electrons, protons,
are problems of electrodynamics. Optics deals etc.; at the other end, it deals with astronomical
with the phenomena involving light. The working
phenomena at the scale of galaxies or even the
of telescopes and microscopes, colours exhibited
entire universe whose extent is of the order of
by  thin  films,  etc.,  are  topics  in  optics. 26
10 m. The two length scales differ by a factor of
Thermodynamics, in contrast to mechanics, does 40
not deal with the motion of bodies as a whole. 10 or even more. The range of time scales can
Rather, it deals with systems in macroscopic be obtained by dividing the length scales by the
–22
equilibrium and is concerned with changes in speed of light : 10 s to 10 18 s. The range of
–30
internal energy, temperature, entropy, etc., of the masses goes from, say, 10 kg (mass of an
55
system through external work and transfer of electron) to 10 kg (mass of known observable
heat. The efficiency of heat engines and universe). Terrestrial phenomena lie somewhere
refrigerators, the direction of a physical or in the middle of this range.

* Recently, the domain intermediate between the macroscopic and the microscopic (the so-called mesoscopic
physics), dealing with a few tens or hundreds of atoms, has emerged as an exciting field of research.

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4 PHYSICS

Physics is exciting in many ways. To some people

the excitement comes from the elegance and Hypothesis, axioms and models
universality of its basic theories, from the fact that One should not think that everything can be proved
a few basic concepts and laws can explain with physics and mathematics. All physics, and also
phenomena covering a large range of magnitude mathematics, is based on assumptions, each of
of physical quantities. To some others, the challenge which is variously called a hypothesis or axiom or
in carrying out imaginative new experiments to postulate, etc.
unlock the secrets of nature, to verify or refute For example, the universal law of gravitation
theories, is thrilling. Applied physics is equally proposed by Newton is an assumption or hypothesis,
demanding. Application and exploitation of which he proposed out of his ingenuity. Before him,
there were several observations, experiments and
physical laws to make useful devices is the most
data, on the motion of planets around the sun,
interesting and exciting part and requires great motion of the moon around the earth, pendulums,
ingenuity and persistence of effort. bodies falling towards the earth etc. Each of these
What lies behind the phenomenal progress required a separate explanation, which was more
of physics in the last few centuries? Great or less qualitative. What the universal law of
progress usually accompanies changes in our gravitation says is that, if we assume that any two
basic perceptions. First, it was realised that for bodies in the universe attract each other with a
scientific progress, only qualitative thinking, force proportional to the product of their masses
though no doubt important, is not enough. and inversely proportional to the square of the
Quantitative measurement is central to the distance between them, then we can explain all
these observations in one stroke. It not only explains
growth of science, especially physics, because
these phenomena, it also allows us to predict the
the laws of nature happen to be expressible in results of future experiments.
precise mathematical equations. The second A hypothesis is a supposition without assuming
most important insight was that the basic laws that it is true. It would not be fair to ask anybody
of physics are universal — the same laws apply to prove the universal law of gravitation, because
in widely different contexts. Lastly, the strategy it  cannot  be  proved.  It  can  be  verified  and
of  approximation  turned  out  to  be  very substantiated by experiments and observations.
successful. Most observed phenomena in daily An axiom is a self-evident truth while a model
life are rather complicated manifestations of the is  a  theory  proposed  to  explain  observed
phenomena. But you need not worry at this stage
basic laws. Scientists recognised the importance
about the nuances in using these words. For
of  extracting  the  essential  features  of  a example, next year you will learn about Bohr’s model
phenomenon from its less significant aspects. of hydrogen atom, in which Bohr assumed that an
It is not practical to take into account all the electron in the hydrogen atom follows certain rules
complexities of a phenomenon in one go. A good (postutates). Why did he do that? There was a large
strategy is to focus first on the essential features, amount of spectroscopic data before him which no
discover the basic principles and then introduce other theory could explain. So Bohr said that if we
corrections to build a more refined theory of the assume that an atom behaves in such a manner,
phenomenon. For example, a stone and a feather we can explain all these things at once.
Einstein’s special theory of relativity is also
dropped from the same height do not reach the
based on two postulates, the constancy of the speed
ground at the same time. The reason is that the of electromagnetic radiation and the validity of
essential aspect of the phenomenon, namely free physical laws in all inertial frame of reference. It
fall  under  gravity,  is  complicated  by  the would not be wise to ask somebody to prove that
presence of air resistance. To get the law of free the  speed  of  light  in  vacuum  is  constant,
fall under gravity, it is better to create a independent of the source or observer.
situation  wherein  the  air  resistance  is In mathematics too, we need axioms and
negligible. We can, for example, let the stone and hypotheses at every stage. Euclid’s statement that
the feather fall through a long evacuated tube. parallel lines never meet, is a hypothesis. This means
that if we assume this statement, we can explain
In that case, the two objects will fall almost at
several properties of straight lines and two or three
the  same  rate,  giving  the  basic  law  that dimensional figures made out of them. But if you
acceleration due to gravity is independent of the don’t assume it, you are free to use a different axiom
found, we can go back to the feather, introduce
mass of the object. With the basic law thus and get a new geometry, as has indeed happened in
corrections due to air resistance, modify the
the past few centuries and decades.
existing theory and try to build a more realistic

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PHYSICAL WORLD 5

theory of objects falling to the earth under A most significant area to which physics has
gravity. and will contribute is the development of
alternative energy resources. The fossil fuels of
1.3 PHYSICS, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY
the planet are dwindling fast and there is an
The connection between physics, technology urgent need to discover new and affordable
and society can be seen in many examples. The sources of energy. Considerable progress has
discipline of thermodynamics arose from the already  been  made  in  this  direction  (for
need to understand and improve the working of example,  in  conversion  of  solar  energy,
heat engines. The steam engine, as we know, geothermal energy, etc., into electricity), but
is inseparable from the Industrial Revolution in much more is still to be accomplished.
England in the eighteenth century, which had Table1.1 lists some of the great physicists,
great  impact  on  the  course  of  human their major contribution and the country of
civilisation. Sometimes technology gives rise to origin. You will appreciate from this table the
new physics; at other times physics generates multi-cultural, international character of the
new technology. An example of the latter is the scientific endeavour. Table 1.2 lists some
wireless communication technology that followed important technologies and the principles of
the discovery of the basic laws of electricity and physics they are based on. Obviously, these
magnetism in the nineteenth century. The tables are not exhaustive. We urge you to try to
applications of physics are not always easy to add many names and items to these tables with
foresee. As late as 1933, the great physicist the help of your teachers, good books and
Ernest Rutherford had dismissed the possibility websites on science. You will find that this
of tapping energy from atoms. But only a few exercise is very educative and also great fun.
years  later,  in  1938,  Hahn  and  Meitner And, assuredly, it will never end. The progress
discovered the phenomenon of neutron-induced of science is unstoppable!
fission of uranium, which would serve as the Physics is the study of nature and natural
basis of nuclear power reactors and nuclear phenomena. Physicists try to discover the rules
weapons. Yet another important example of that are operating in nature, on the basis of
physics giving rise to technology is the silicon observations, experimentation and analysis.
‘chip’ that triggered the computer revolution in Physics deals with certain basic rules/laws
the last three decades of the twentieth century. governing the natural world. What is the nature

Table 1.1 Some physicists from different countries of the world and their major contributions

Name Major contribution/discovery Country of

Origin
Archimedes Principle of buoyancy; Principle of the lever Greece
Galileo Galilei Law of inertia Italy
Christiaan Huygens Wave theory of light Holland
Isaac Newton Universal law of gravitation; Laws of motion; U.K.
Reflecting telescope
Michael Faraday Laws of electromagnetic induction U.K.
James Clerk Maxwell Electromagnetic theory; Light-an U.K.
electromagnetic wave
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz Generation of electromagnetic waves Germany
J.C. Bose Ultra short radio waves India
W.K. Roentgen X-rays Germany
J.J. Thomson Electron U.K.
Marie Sklodowska Curie Discovery of radium and polonium; Studies on Poland
natural radioactivity
Albert Einstein Explanation of photoelectric effect; Germany
Theory of relativity

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Name Major contribution/discovery Country of

Origin
Victor Francis Hess Cosmic radiation Austria
R.A. Millikan Measurement of electronic charge U.S.A.
Ernest Rutherford Nuclear model of atom New Zealand
Niels Bohr Quantum model of hydrogen atom Denmark
C.V. Raman Inelastic scattering of light by molecules India
Louis Victor de Borglie Wave nature of matter France
M.N. Saha Thermal ionisation India
S.N. Bose Quantum statistics India
Wolfgang Pauli Exclusion principle Austria
Enrico Fermi Controlled nuclear fission Italy
Werner Heisenberg Quantum mechanics; Uncertainty principle Germany
Paul Dirac Relativistic theory of electron; U.K.
Quantum statistics
Edwin Hubble Expanding universe U.S.A.
Ernest Orlando Lawrence Cyclotron U.S.A.
James Chadwick Neutron U.K.
Hideki Yukawa Theory of nuclear forces Japan
Homi Jehangir Bhabha Cascade process of cosmic radiation India
Lev Davidovich Landau Theory of condensed matter; Liquid helium Russia
S. Chandrasekhar Chandrasekhar limit, structure and evolution India
of stars
John Bardeen Transistors; Theory of super conductivity U.S.A.
C.H. Townes Maser; Laser U.S.A.
Abdus Salam Unification of weak and electromagnetic Pakistan
interactions

of physical laws? We shall now discuss the ideas about it. The correct notion of force was
nature of fundamental forces and the laws that arrived at by Isaac Newton in his famous laws of
govern the diverse phenomena of the physical motion. He also gave an explicit form for the force
world. for gravitational attraction between two bodies.
We shall learn these matters in subsequent
1.4 FUNDAMENTAL FORCES IN NATURE*
chapters.
We all have an intuitive notion of force. In our In  the  macroscopic  world,  besides  the
experience, force is needed to push, carry or gravitational force, we encounter several kinds
throw objects, deform or break them. We also of forces: muscular force, contact forces between
experience the impact of forces on us, like when bodies, friction (which is also a contact force
a moving object hits us or we are in a merry-go- parallel to the surfaces in contact), the forces
round. Going from this intuitive notion to the exerted by compressed or elongated springs and
proper scientific concept of force is not a trivial taut strings and ropes (tension), the force of
matter. Early thinkers like Aristotle had wrong buoyancy and viscous force when solids are in

*Sections 1.4 and 1.5 contain several ideas that you may not grasp fully in your first reading. However, we
advise you to read them carefully to develop a feel for some basic aspects of physics. These are some of the
areas which continue to occupy the physicists today.

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Table 1.2 Link between technology and physics

Technology Scientific  principle(s)

Steam engine Laws of thermodynamics
Nuclear reactor Controlled nuclear fission
Radio and Television Generation, propagation and detection
of electromagnetic waves
Computers Digital logic
Lasers Light amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation
Production of ultra high magnetic Superconductivity
fields
Rocket propulsion Newton’s laws of motion
Electric generator Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction
Hydroelectric power Conversion of gravitational potential energy into
electrical energy
Aeroplane Bernoulli’s principle in fluid dynamics
Particle accelerators Motion of charged particles in electromagnetic
fields
Sonar Reflection of ultrasonic waves
Optical fibres Total internal reflection of light
Non-reflecting coatings Thin film optical interference

Electron microscope Wave nature of electrons

Photocell Photoelectric effect

Fusion test reactor (Tokamak) Magnetic confinement of plasma

Giant Metrewave Radio Detection of cosmic radio waves
Telescope (GMRT)
Bose-Einstein condensate Trapping and cooling of atoms by laser beams and
magnetic fields.

contact with fluids, the force due to pressure of to the net attraction/repulsion between the
a fluid, the force due to surface tension of a liquid, neighbouring atoms of the spring when the
and so on. There are also forces involving charged spring is elongated/compressed. This net
and magnetic bodies. In the microscopic domain attraction/repulsion can be traced to the
again, we have electric and magnetic forces, (unbalanced) sum of electric forces between the
nuclear forces involving protons and neutrons, charged constituents of the atoms.
interatomic and intermolecular forces, etc. We In principle, this means that the laws for
shall get familiar with some of these forces in later ‘derived’ forces (such as spring force, friction)
parts of this course. are not independent of the laws of fundamental
A great insight of the twentieth century forces in nature. The origin of these derived
physics is that these different forces occurring forces is, however, very complex.
in different contexts actually arise from only a At the present stage of our understanding,
small number of fundamental forces in nature. we know of four fundamental forces in nature,
For example, the elastic spring force arises due which are described in brief here :

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8 PHYSICS

Albert Einstein (1879-1955)

Albert Einstein, born in Ulm, Germany in 1879, is universally regarded as

one of the greatest physicists of all time. His astonishing scientific career
began with the publication of three path-breaking papers in 1905. In the
first paper, he introduced the notion of light quanta (now called photons)
and used it to explain the features of photoelectric effect that the classical
wave theory of radiation could not account for. In the second paper, he
developed a theory of Brownian motion that was confirmed experimentally
a few years later and provided a convincing evidence of the atomic picture of
matter. The third paper gave birth to the special theory of relativity that
made Einstein a legend in his own life time. In the next decade, he explored the consequences of his
new theory which included, among other things, the mass-energy equivalence enshrined in his famous
2
equation E = mc . He also created the general version of relativity (The General Theory of Relativity),
which is the modern theory of gravitation. Some of Einstein’s most significant later contributions are:
the notion of stimulated emission introduced in an alternative derivation of Planck’s blackbody radiation
law, static model of the universe which started modern cosmology, quantum statistics of a gas of
massive bosons, and a critical analysis of the foundations of quantum mechanics. The year 2005 was
declared as International Year of Physics, in recognition of Einstein’s monumental contribution to
physics, in year 1905, describing revolutionary scientific ideas that have since influenced all of modern
physics.

1.4.1 Gravitational Force electric force between two protons, for example,
36
The gravitational force is the force of mutual is 10 times the gravitational force between
attraction between any two objects by virtue of them, for any fixed distance.
their masses. It is a universal force. Every object Matter, as we know, consists of elementary
experiences this force due to every other object charged  constituents  like  electrons  and
in the universe. All objects on the earth, for protons. Since the electromagnetic force is so
example, experience the force of gravity due to much stronger than the gravitational force, it
the earth. In particular, gravity governs the dominates  all  phenomena  at  atomic  and
motion of the moon and artificial satellites around molecular scales. (The other two forces, as we
the earth, motion of the earth and planets shall see, operate only at nuclear scales.) Thus
around the sun, and, of course, the motion of it is mainly the electromagnetic force that
bodies falling to the earth. It plays a key role in governs the structure of atoms and molecules,
the large-scale phenomena of the universe, such the dynamics of chemical reactions and the
as formation and evolution of stars, galaxies and mechanical, thermal and other properties of
galactic clusters. materials. It underlies the macroscopic forces
1.4.2 Electromagnetic Force like ‘tension’, ‘friction’, ‘normal force’, ‘spring
force’, etc.
Electromagnetic force is the force between
Gravity   is   always   attractive,   while
charged particles. In the simpler case when
charges are at rest, the force is given by electromagnetic force can be attractive or
Coulomb’s law : attractive for unlike charges and repulsive. Another way of putting it is that mass
repulsive for like charges. Charges in motion comes only in one variety (there is no negative
produce magnetic effects and a magnetic field mass), but charge comes in two varieties :
gives rise to a force on a moving charge. Electric positive and negative charge. This is what
and  magnetic  effects  are,  in  general, makes all the difference. Matter is mostly
inseparable – hence the name electromagnetic electrically neutral (net charge is zero). Thus,
force. Like the gravitational   force, electric force is largely zero and gravitational
electromagnetic force acts over large distances force dominates terrestrial phenomena. Electric
and does not need any intervening medium. It force manifests itself in atmosphere where the
is enormously strong compared to gravity. The atoms are ionised and that leads to lightning.

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Satyendranath Bose (1894-1974)

Satyendranath Bose, born in Calcutta in 1894, is among the great Indian

physicists who made a fundamental contribution to the advance of science
in the twentieth century. An outstanding student throughout, Bose started
his career in 1916 as a lecturer in physics in Calcutta University; five years
later he joined Dacca University. Here in 1924, in a brilliant flash of insight,
Bose gave a new derivation of Planck’s law, treating radiation as a gas of
photons and employing new statistical methods of counting of photon states.
He wrote a short paper on the subject and sent it to Einstein who
immediately recognised its great significance, translated it in German and
forwarded it for publication. Einstein then applied the same method to a
gas of molecules.
The key new conceptual ingredient in Bose’s work was that the particles were regarded as
indistinguishable, a radical departure from the assumption that underlies the classical Maxwell-
Boltzmann statistics. It was soon realised that the new Bose -Einstein statistics was applicable to
particles with integers spins, and a new quantum statistics (Fermi-Dirac statistics) was needed for
particles with half integers spins satisfying Pauli’s exclusion principle. Particles with integers spins
are now known as bosons in honour of Bose.
An important consequence of Bose-Einstein statistics is that a gas of molecules below a certain
temperature will undergo a phase transition to a state where a large fraction of atoms populate the
same lowest energy state. Some seventy years were to pass before the pioneering ideas of Bose, developed
further by Einstein, were dramatically confirmed in the observation of a new state of matter in a dilute
gas of ultra cold alkali atoms - the Bose-Eintein condensate.

If we reflect a little, the enormous strength strength. It is charge-independent and acts

of  the  electromagnetic  force  compared  to equally between a proton and a proton, a
gravity is evident in our daily life. When we neutron and a neutron, and a proton and a
hold a book in our hand, we are balancing the neutron. Its range is, however, extremely small,
–15
gravitational force on the book due to the huge of about nuclear dimensions (10 m). It is
mass  of  the  earth  by  the  ‘normal  force’ responsible for the stability of nuclei. The
provided by our hand. The latter is nothing electron, it must be noted, does not experience
but the net electromagnetic force between the this force.
charged  constituents  of  our  hand  and Recent  developments  have,  however,
the  book,  at  the  surface  in  contact.  If indicated that protons and neutrons are built
electromagnetic force were not intrinsically so out of still more elementary constituents called
much stronger than gravity, the hand of the quarks.
strongest  man  would  crumble  under  the
1.4.4 Weak Nuclear Force
weight of a feather ! Indeed, to be consistent,
in that circumstance, we ourselves would The weak nuclear force appears only in certain
crumble under our own weight ! nuclear processes such as the β-decay of a
nucleus. In β-decay, the nucleus emits an
1.4.3 Strong Nuclear Force electron and an uncharged particle called
The strong nuclear force binds protons and neutrino. The weak nuclear force is not as weak
neutrons in a nucleus. It is evident that without as the gravitational force, but much weaker
some  attractive  force,  a  nucleus  will  be than the strong nuclear and electromagnetic
unstable due to the electric repulsion between forces. The range of weak nuclear force is
–16
its protons. This attractive force cannot be exceedingly small, of the order of 10 m.
gravitational since force of gravity is negligible
compared to the electric force. A new basic force 1.4.5 Towards Unification of Forces
must, therefore, be invoked. The strong nuclear We remarked in section 1.1 that unification is a
force is the strongest of all fundamental forces, basic quest in physics. Great advances in
about 100 times the electromagnetic force in physics often amount to unification of different

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Table 1.3 Fundamental forces of nature

Name Relative Range Operates  among

strength

Gravitational force 10 –39 Infinite All objects in the universe

Weak nuclear force 10 –13 Very short, Sub-nuclear Some elementary particles,
size (∼10–16 m) particularly electron and
neutrino
Electromagnetic force 10–2 Infinite Charged particles
Strong nuclear force 1 Short, nuclear Nucleons, heavier
size (∼10–15 m) elementary particles

theories and domains. Newton unified terrestrial 1.5 NATURE OF PHYSICAL LAWS
and celestial domains under a common law of Physicists  explore  the  universe.  Their
gravitation. The experimental discoveries of investigations, based on scientific processes,
Oersted and Faraday showed that electric and range from particles that are smaller than
magnetic   phenomena   are   in   general atoms in size to stars that are very far away. In
inseparable. Maxwell unified electromagnetism addition to finding the facts by observation and
and optics with the discovery that light is an experimentation, physicists attempt to discover
electromagnetic wave. Einstein attempted to the laws that summarise (often as mathematical
unify gravity and electromagnetism but could equations) these facts.
not succeed in this venture. But this did not In any physical phenomenon governed by
deter physicists from zealously pursuing the different forces, several quantities may change
goal of unification of forces. with time. A remarkable fact is that some special
Recent decades have seen much progress on physical quantities, however, remain constant
this front. The electromagnetic and the weak in time. They are the conserved quantities of
nuclear force have now been unified and are nature. Understanding these conservation
seen as aspects of a single ‘electro-weak’ force. principles is very important to describe the
What this unification actually means cannot observed phenomena quantitatively.
be explained here. Attempts have been (and are For motion under an external conservative
being) made to unify the electro-weak and the force, the total mechanical energy i.e. the sum
strong force and even to unify the gravitational of kinetic and potential energy of a body is a
force with the rest of the fundamental forces. constant. The familiar example is the free fall of
Many of these ideas are still speculative and an object under gravity. Both the kinetic energy
inconclusive. Table 1.4 summarises some of the of the object and its potential energy change
milestones in the progress towards unification continuously with time, but the sum remains
of forces in nature. fixed. If the object is released from rest, the initial
Table 1.4 Progress in unification of different forces/domains in nature

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potential energy is completely converted into the the other end, all kinds of violent phenomena
kinetic energy of the object just before it hits occur in the universe all the time. Yet the total
the ground. This law restricted for a conservative energy of the universe (the most ideal isolated
force should not be confused with the general system  possible !)  is  believed  to  remain
law of conservation of energy of an isolated unchanged.
system (which is the basis of the First Law of Until the advent of Einstein’s theory of
Thermodynamics). relativity, the law of conservation of mass was
The concept of energy is central to physics regarded as another basic conservation law of
and the expressions for energy can be written nature,  since  matter  was  thought  to  be
for every physical system. When all forms of indestructible. It was (and still is) an important
energy e.g., heat, mechanical energy, electrical principle used, for example, in the analysis of
energy etc., are counted, it turns out that energy chemical reactions. A chemical reaction is
is conserved. The general law of conservation of basically a rearrangement of atoms among
energy is true for all forces and for any kind of different molecules. If the total binding energy
transformation between different forms of of the reacting molecules is less than the total
energy. In the falling object example, if you binding energy of the product molecules, the
include the effect of air resistance during the difference appears as heat and the reaction is
fall and see the situation after the object hits exothermic. The opposite is true for energy
the  ground  and  stays  there,  the  total absorbing (endothermic) reactions. However,
mechanical energy is obviously not conserved. since the atoms are merely rearranged but not
The general law of energy conservation, however, destroyed, the total mass of the reactants is the
is still applicable. The initial potential energy same as the total mass of the products in a
of the stone gets transformed into other forms chemical reaction. The changes in the binding
of energy : heat and sound. (Ultimately, sound energy are too small to be measured as changes
after it is absorbed becomes heat.) The total in mass.
energy  of  the  system  (stone  plus  the According to Einstein’s theory, mass m is
surroundings) remains unchanged. equivalent to energy E given by the relation
2
The law of conservation of energy is thought E = mc , where c is speed of light in vacuum.
to be valid across all domains of nature, from In a nuclear process mass gets converted to
the  microscopic  to  the  macroscopic.  It  is energy (or vice-versa). This is the energy which
routinely applied in the analysis of atomic, is released in a nuclear power generation and
nuclear and elementary particle processes. At nuclear explosions.

Sir C.V. Raman (1888-1970)

Chandrashekhara Venkata Raman was born on 07 Nov 1888 in Thiruvanaikkaval.

He finished his schooling by the age of eleven. He graduated from Presidency
College, Madras. After finishing his education he joined financial services of the
Indian Government.
While in Kolkata, he started working on his area of interest at Indian Asso-
ciation for Cultivation of Science founded by Dr. Mahendra Lal Sirkar, during his
evening hours. His area of interest included vibrations, variety of musical instru-
ments, ultrasonics, diffraction and so on.
In 1917 he was offered Professorship at Calcutta University. In 1924 he was
elected ‘Fellow’ of the Royal Society of London and received Nobel prize in Physics
in 1930 for his discovery, now known as Raman Effect.
The Raman  Effect deals with scattering of light by molecules of a medium
when they are excited to vibrational energy levels. This work opened totally new
avenues for research for years to come.
He spent his later years at Bangalore, first at Indian Institute of Science and then at Raman Re-
search Institute. His work has inspired generation of young students.

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Energy is a scalar quantity. But all conserved

Conservation laws in physics
quantities are not necessarily scalars. The total
linear  momentum  and  the  total  angular Conservation of energy, momentum, angular
momentum, charge, etc are considered to be
momentum (both vectors) of an isolated system
fundamental laws in physics. At this moment,
are also conserved quantities. These laws can there are many such conservation laws. Apart from
be derived from Newton’s laws of motion in the above four, there are others which mostly deal
mechanics. But their validity goes beyond with quantities which have been introduced in
mechanics. They are the basic conservation nuclear  and  particle  physics.  Some  of  the
laws of nature in all domains, even in those conserved quantities are called spin, baryon
number, strangeness, hypercharge, etc, but you
where Newton’s laws may not be valid.
need not worry about them.
Besides their great simplicity and generality, A conservation law is a hypothesis, based on
the conservation laws of nature are very useful observations and experiments. It is important to
in practice too. It often happens that we cannot remember that a conservation law cannot be
solve the full dynamics of a complex problem proved. It can be verified, or disproved, by
involving different particles and forces. The experiments. An experiment whose result is in
conformity with the law verifies or substantiates
conservation laws can still provide useful
the law; it does not prove the law. On the other
results. For example, we may not know the hand, a single experiment whose result goes
complicated forces that act during a collision against the law is enough to disprove it.
of two automobiles; yet   momentum It would be wrong to ask somebody to prove
conservation law enables us to bypass the the law of conservation of energy. This law is an
complications and predict or rule out possible outcome of our experience over several centuries,
and  it  has  been  found  to  be  valid  in  all
outcomes of the collision. In nuclear and
experiments, in mechanics, thermodynamics,
elementary  particle  phenomena  also,  the electromagnetism, optics, atomic and nuclear
conservation  laws  are  important  tools  of physics, or any other area.
analysis. Indeed, using the conservation laws Some students feel that they can prove the
of energy and momentum for β-decay, Wolfgang conservation of mechanical energy from a body
Pauli (1900 -1958) correctly predicted in 1931 falling under gravity, by adding the kinetic and
potential energies at a point and showing that it
the existence of a new particle (now called turns out to be constant. As pointed out above,
neutrino) emitted in β-decay along with the this is only a verification of the law, not its proof.
electron.
Conservation laws have a deep connection
with symmetries of nature that you will explore because of differing conditions at different
in more advanced courses in physics. For locations. For example, the acceleration due to
example, an important observation is that the gravity at the moon is one-sixth that at the earth,
laws of nature do not change with time! If you but the law of gravitation is the same both on
perform an experiment in your laboratory today the moon and the earth.) This symmetry of the
and repeat the same experiment (on the same laws of nature with respect to translation in
objects under identical conditions) after a year, space  gives  rise  to  conservation  of  linear
the results are bound to be the same. It turns momentum. In the same way isotropy of space
out that this symmetry of nature with respect to (no intrinsically preferred direction in space)
translation  (i.e.  displacement)  in  time  is underlies the law of conservation of angular
equivalent to the law of conservation of energy. momentum*. The conservation laws of charge and
Likewise, space is homogeneous and there is no other attributes of elementary particles can also
(intrinsically) preferred location in the universe. be related to certain abstract symmetries.
To put it more clearly, the laws of nature are the Symmetries of space and time and other abstract
same everywhere in the universe. (Caution : the symmetries play a central role in modern theories
phenomena may differ from place to place of fundamental forces in nature.

* See Chapter 7

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SUMMARY

1. Physics deals with the study of the basic laws of nature and their manifestation in
different phenomena. The basic laws of physics are universal and apply in widely different
contexts and conditions.
2. The scope of physics is wide, covering a tremendous range of magnitude of physical
quantities.
3. Physics and technology are related to each other. Sometimes technology gives rise to
new physics; at other times physics generates new technology. Both have direct impact
on society.
4. There are four fundamental forces in nature that govern the diverse phenomena of the
macroscopic and the microscopic world. These are the ‘gravitational force’, the
‘electromagnetic force’, the ‘strong nuclear force’, and the ‘weak nuclear force’. Unification
of different forces/domains in nature is a basic quest in physics.
5. The physical quantities that remain unchanged in a process are called conserved
quantities. Some of the general conservation laws in nature include the laws of
conservation of mass, energy, linear momentum, angular momentum, charge, parity,
etc. Some conservation laws are true for one fundamental force but not for the other.
6. Conservation laws have a deep connection with symmetries of nature. Symmetries of
space and time, and other types of symmetries play a central role in modern theories of
fundamental forces in nature.

EXERCISES

Note for the student

The exercises given here are meant to enhance your awareness about the issues surrounding
science, technology and society and to encourage you to think and formulate your views
about them. The questions may not have clear-cut ‘objective’ answers.
Note for the teacher
The exercises given here are not for the purpose of a formal examination.
1.1 Some of the most profound statements on the nature of science have come from
Albert Einstein, one of the greatest scientists of all time. What do you think did
Einstein mean when he said : “The most incomprehensible thing about the world is
that it is comprehensible”?
1.2 “Every great physical theory starts as a heresy and ends as a dogma”. Give some
examples from the history of science of the validity of this incisive remark.
1.3 “Politics is the art of the possible”. Similarly, “Science is the art of the soluble”.
Explain this beautiful aphorism on the nature and practice of science.
1.4 Though India now has a large base in science and technology, which is fast expanding,
it is still a long way from realising its potential of becoming a world leader in science.
Name some important factors, which in your view have hindered the advancement of
science in India.
1.5 No physicist has ever “seen” an electron. Yet, all physicists believe in the existence of
electrons. An intelligent but superstitious man advances this analogy to argue that
‘ghosts’ exist even though no one has ‘seen’ one. How will you refute his argument ?
1.6 The shells of crabs found around a particular coastal location in Japan seem mostly
to resemble the legendary face of a Samurai. Given below are two explanations of this
observed fact. Which of these strikes you as a scientific explanation ?
(a) A tragic sea accident several centuries ago drowned a young Samurai. As a tribute
to his bravery, nature through its inscrutable ways immortalised his face by
imprinting it on the crab shells in that area.

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(b) After the sea tragedy, fishermen in that area, in a gesture of honour to their
dead hero, let free any crab shell caught by them which accidentally had a shape
resembling the face of a Samurai. Consequently, the particular shape of the
crab shell survived longer and therefore in course of time the shape was genetically
propagated. This is an example of evolution by artificial selection.
[Note : This interesting illustration taken from Carl Sagan’s ‘The Cosmos’ highlights
the fact that often strange and inexplicable facts which on the first sight appear
‘supernatural’ actually turn out to have simple scientific explanations. Try to think
out other examples of this kind].
1.7 The industrial revolution in England and Western Europe more than two centuries
ago was triggered by some key scientific and technological advances. What were these
advances ?
1.8 It is often said that the world is witnessing now a second industrial revolution, which
will transform the society as radically as did the first. List some key contemporary areas
of science and technology, which are responsible for this revolution.
1.9 Write in about 1000 words a fiction piece based on your speculation on the science
and technology of the twenty-second century.
1.10 Attempt to formulate your ‘moral’ views on the practice of science. Imagine yourself
stumbling upon a discovery, which has great academic interest but is certain to have
nothing but dangerous consequences for the human society. How, if at all, will you
resolve your dilemma ?
1.11 Science, like any knowledge, can be put to good or bad use, depending on the user.
Given below are some of the applications of science. Formulate your views on whether
the particular application is good, bad or something that cannot be so clearly
categorised :
(a) Mass vaccination against small pox to curb and finally eradicate this disease
from the population. (This has already been successfully done in India).
(b) Television for eradication of illiteracy and for mass communication of news and
ideas.
(c) Prenatal sex determination
(d) Computers for increase in work efficiency
(e) Putting artificial satellites into orbits around the Earth
(f ) Development of nuclear weapons
(g) Development of new and powerful techniques of chemical and biological warfare).
(h) Purification of water for drinking
(i) Plastic surgery
(j ) Cloning
1.12 India has had a long and unbroken tradition of great scholarship — in mathematics,
astronomy, linguistics, logic and ethics. Yet, in parallel with this, several superstitious
and obscurantistic attitudes and practices flourished in our society and unfortunately
continue even today — among many educated people too. How will you use your
knowledge of science to develop strategies to counter these attitudes ?
1.13 Though the law gives women equal status in India, many people hold unscientific
views on a woman’s innate nature, capacity and intelligence, and in practice give
them a secondary status and role. Demolish this view using scientific arguments, and
by quoting examples of great women in science and other spheres; and persuade yourself
and others that, given equal opportunity, women are on par with men.
1.14 “It is more important to have beauty in the equations of physics than to have them
agree with experiments”. The great British physicist P. A. M. Dirac held this view.
Criticize this statement. Look out for some equations and results in this book which
strike you as beautiful.
1.15 Though the statement quoted above may be disputed, most physicists do have a feeling
that the great laws of physics are at once simple and beautiful. Some of the notable
physicists, besides Dirac, who have articulated this feeling, are : Einstein, Bohr,
Heisenberg, Chandrasekhar and Feynman. You are urged to make special efforts to get

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access to the general books and writings by these and other great masters of physics.
(See the Bibliography at the end of this book.) Their writings are truly inspiring !
1.16 Textbooks on science may give you a wrong impression that studying science is dry
and all too serious and that scientists are absent-minded introverts who never laugh
or grin. This image of science and scientists is patently false. Scientists, like any
other group of humans, have their share of humorists, and many have led their lives
with a great sense of fun and adventure, even as they seriously pursued their scientific
work. Two great physicists of this genre are Gamow and Feynman. You will enjoy
reading their books listed in the Bibliography.

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