TUTORIAL I

PH YS I O LO GY O F O RGA N IS M S

Biology 3

presented by
NURULAIN HANNANI | FIRDAUS ZULKIFLI | AMIRUL HAKIM
TUTORIAL FAD1003
Amirul
Firdaus
Hannani
Q1. Describe a principle of
homeostasis
HOMEOST Process / mechanism of maintaining constant physical &
chemical factors within internal body environment
ASIS
• Physical & chemical factor of tissue
fluid usually
• Need to maintained at balance
level • Organism must regulate their
• Controlled through homeostatic internal body environment as to
mechanism to prevent sudden survive and function effectively
changes • Series of correction mechanism will
act to help restore the physical &
chemical composition of tissue fluid
to normal
Important features that need to be kept constant
 HOMEOSTATIC MECHANISM
o Feedback system (cycle of events)
o The information regarding change in internal environment is feedback into system so the
regulator can control the process
Negative feedback mechanism
Positive feedback mechanism
 Summary
• Homeostasis function to maintain constant internal environment
• Homeostasis also maintain stability of cellular environment and lessen
the dependent towards environment
Thank You
FOR YOUR ATTENTION
Q2
Homeostasis Discuss the control of blood glucose level
(15 marks) in human when glucose concentration
INTRODUCTION
A hexose aldehyde sugar
- central to many
metabolic
processes.
Major fuel for cellular respiration &
key source of C skeletons for
biosynthesis
- Maintaining blood
glucose WHY
concentrations is Glucose
essential ?
 Normal range of glucose concentration in blood : 70-110
mg/100 ml
If the concentration decreases below this,
1 3 5

Cells may not Cells may be unable to This is important for

have enough carry out their normal cells that can respire
glucose for activities only glucose, such as
respiration brain cells.

2 4

can cause major

Very high concentrations of
problems, again
glucose in the blood → upsetting the normal
behaviour of cells.
Blood glucose level is regulated by several organs; mainly
pancreas & liver.
Glucose is transported from
the intestine to the liver
through the HEPATIC
PORTAL VEIN.
Pancreas functions to detect
any fluctuation from the
normal level.
 Glycogen →
Pancreas – endocrine Glucose
gland Alpha cells
- Secrete glucagon

Islets of
Langerhans

The insulin–glucagon system is a Beta cells

powerful, fast acting mechanism for - Secrete insulin
keeping blood glucose level within Glucose →
normal limits Glycogen
 CONTEN
When
T
.GLUCOSE CONCENTRATION.

RISES
above normal level…

Glucose concentration

omeostasis
increases.

TAKES PLACE
 respond to the glucose
concentration within their own
cytoplasm – reflects the blood
glucose level.
Glucagon secretion
is inhibited.

α-cells
Alpha & Beta cells of Islets of
Insulin is
β-cells
Langerhans in pancreas is
stimulated secreted.
 Has an anabolic effect
What is on protein
insulin? metabolism, resulting
Inhibits liver cells from in a net increase in
releasing glucose. protein in cells.

Promotes protein
synthesis by ↑ number
of amino acid
transporters in
plasma membrane
Regulate fat and
protein metabolism
Stimulate transport of
certain amino acids
Anabolic hormone – into cells.
promotes storage of fuel
Reduce the use of fatty
acids as fuel ~ molecules.
Stimulates cells of many tissues,
stimulates their storage (eg; liver, muscles and fat cells)
in adipose tissue. to take up glucose from the Promotes
blood by facilitated diffusion. transcription and
translation.
 HOMEOSTASIS

Insulin is a signalling molecule.

As it is a protein, it cannot pass

through cell membranes to stimulate
the mechanisms within the cell
directly.

Instead, insulin binds to a receptor

in the cell surface membrane &
affects the cell indirectly through the
mediation of intracellular
messengers
Permeability of cell surface membrane to glucose
increase.
 AA

Insulin increases the permeability of muscle cells to glucose by

stimulating the movement of vesicles with GLUT4 to the cell surface
membrane.
 In liver, the glucose
may be …

aerobiosis
converted to CO2 and
water through cell
respiration

converted into
glycogen for storage distributed into
the bloodstream

converted into fat to be

stored as adipose tissue
 Speed up the oxidation of glucose to CO2 and
water through cell respiration (aerobiosis)

Glucose can only enter cells through

transporter proteins (GLUT).

Muscle cells have GLUT4. Normally, GLUT

proteins are kept in the cytoplasm in the
same way as the aquaporins in collecting
duct cells.

When insulin molecules bind to receptors on

muscle cells, the vesicles with GLUT4
proteins are moved to the cell surface
membrane and fusewith it.

GLUT4 proteins facilitate the movement of

glucose into the cell.

Brain cells have GLUT1 proteins and liver

cells have GLUT2 proteins, which are
always in the cell surface membrane, and
their distribution is not altered by insulin.
 speed up the conversion of glucose
to glycogen and fat for storage

Insulin
stimulates
activation of
- phosphorylates
the enzyme glucose
glucokinase

Q U A N T I T I E S
as phosphorylated glucose This traps
can’t pass through
transporters in the cell glucose
membrane. inside cells

Insulin
stimulates • which together add
activation of 2 glucose molecules to
enzymes; glycogen.
phosphofructo
kinase & • ↑ size of the glycogen
glycogen granules inside the cell.
synthase
 AA

Speed up the conversion of glucose to glycogen and fat for

storage
 Insulin receptors are on many cells; in
liver, muscle and adipose tissue.

Insulin stimulates cells with these receptors

to increase the rate at which they absorb
glucose from the blood, convert it into
glycogen and use it in respiration.

This results in a decrease in the

concentration of glucose in the blood.

The overall effect is that the blood

Prevent the formation of glucose from sugar level is lowered to the normal
glycogen
level.
and non-carbohydrate sources
AA
 Summary

Blood sugar level ↑ above

normal
secrete

Hyperglycaemia

Excess glucose excreted in

urine – glycosurea

Correction: Insulin injection

 Excess Glucose

Excess glucose in the blood will result in the loss of water from tissues through osmosis
Low blood pressure
Low Glucose
Volume of solute ↓,
Pressure ↓
Causes Fatigue

Extreme
condition: comma
EXTREME CONDITION:
Thank You
FOR YOUR ATTENTION
Question 3
Proximal tubule
Completes the reabsorption of glucose, amino acids
and important anions including phosphate and citrate
because it is the sole site of transport of these filtered
solutes

Efficiently regulates the pH of the filtrate by

exchanging Hydrogen ions in the interstitium for
bicarbonate ions in the filtrate.

It is also responsible for secreting organic acids, such

as creatinine and other bases into the filtrate.

In addition, to solute reabsorption and secretion, the

proximal tubule is also a metabolic organ.
Descending limb
of the loop of ● Helps mantain a constant amount of NaCl
being delivered to the distal portions of the
nephron.

Henle ● It is permeable to water

● Water diffuses into the hyperosmolar

medullary intestitium.
Ascending limb of the loop of Henle

1. The principal function is in the

recovery of water and sodium
chloride from urine.

2. Allows production of urine that is

far more concentrated than blood.

3. Limiting the amount of water

needed as intake for survival.
Distal tubule
Plays a key role in regulating the K+ and NaCl
concentration of body fluids

This regulation involves variation in the amount

of K+ secreted into the filtrate as well as the
amount of NaCl reabsorbed from the filtrate.

The distal tubule also contributes to pH

regulation by the controlled secretion of H+
and reabsorption of HCO3.
Collecting duct
● Processes the filtrate into urine, which it
carries to the renal pelvis.
● As filtrate passes along the transport
epithelium of the collecting duct,
hormonal control of permeability and
transport determines the extend to which
the urine becomes concentrated.
Conclusion

In summary, blood circulates through the kidney in the following sequence:

Bowman’s capsule proximal convoluted tubule loop of henle distal convoluted tubule
collecting duct
Thank You
FOR YOUR ATTENTION