STEPHEN KRASHEN’S

SECOND LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION THEORY

Sharonda Walker

Texas Woman’s University

KRASHEN SPEAKS
 LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
HYPOTHESES:
•Acquisition-Learning

•Monitor
•Natural Order
•Input
•Affective Filter
 ACQUISITION-LEARNING
• Hypothesis: The belief  that English
Language Learners (ELLs) 'acquire' and
'learn' the target language.
– To 'acquire' the language, the ELLs
subconsciously process the target
language based on feelings
(Lightbown
& Spada, 2006, p.36).
– 'Learning' the language is when the
ELLs are aware that they are
processing the target language
through formal instruction and rule
learning (Lightbrown & Spada, 2006,
 MONITOR
• Hypothesis: The belief that acquisition
results when the English Language Learners
(ELLs) can consciously correct errors while
speaking in the target language.
– The ELLs are able to understand the
grammar rules associated with the target
language in order to correct their
errors by acting as an editor or 'monitor'
(Lightbown & Spada, 2006, p. 37).
 NATURAL ORDER
• Hypothesis: Krashen's belief that English
Language Learners (ELLs) acquire the
target language in predictable sequences.
However, the ELLs may be able to
acquire the target language early on, or it
may develop later in the acquisition
process (Lightbown & Spada, 2006, p.
37).
INPUT
• Hypothesis: Based on
comprehensible input (language
that a learner can understand)
that is provided to the ELLs that
is above their level of
understanding. This does not take
place through learning, but
through acquisition (Lightbown
& Spada, 2006, p. 37).
 AFFECTIVE FILTER
• Hypothesis: The belief that the English
Language Learners (ELLs) ' affective filter
' must be maintained at a low level in
order for them to acquire the target
language.  The 'affective filter' is a barrier
that prevents the ELLs from acquiring the
target language (Lightbown & Spada,
2006, p. 37).
• Positive self-confidence, high motivation,
and low anxiety (stress) must be
maintained in order for the ELLs to
progress through the acquisition process
(Lightbown & Spada, 2006, p. 37).
 CURRENT RESEARCH
• One of the principal critics of Stephen
Krashen's second language acquisition
theory has been Barry McLaughlin. In
"Conscious" versus "Unconscious"
Learning, McLauglin disagrees with
Krashen's Acquisition-Learning
hypothesis.
• McLaughlin believes that ELLs learn the
target language through "rule" or "feel;”
that the ELLs are feeling their way
through the target language and can
recognize the grammar "rule" while
speaking (McLaughlin, 1990, pp. 619-
CURRENT RESEARCH
• In the article Myths and
misconceptions about second
language learning, McLaughlin
states that younger is not always
better when acquiring a second
language (McLaughlin, 1992, p. 129).
• Beginning language instruction early
for English Language Learners
(ELLs) gives them more exposure to
the target language; however, this
does not predict language acquisition
(McLaughlin, 1992, p. 129).
 CURRENT RESEARCH
• Rod Ellis is another researcher that does
not fully support Krashen's second
language acquisition theory. In Principles
of instructed second language acquisition,
Ellis believes that implicit and explicit
knowledge play a role in language
acquisition and that Krashen's "monitor"
hypothesis does not take these two
concepts into consideration (Ellis, 2008, p.
3).
• Ellis states that input of implicit knowledge
needs to be incorporated into language
acquisition and not entirely focused on
Krashen's "comprehensible input,” (Ellis,
CURRENT RESEARCH
• In Anniversary article : Classroom SLA
research and second language teaching, 
Lightbown discusses ten generalizations
from SLA research that favors and
opposes certain aspects of Krashen's
second language acquisition theory.
• Lightbown concurs with Krashen that
ELLs 'acquire' the target language;
however, she and other researchers
believe that ELLs can acquire the target
language 'incidentally.' (Lightbown,
2000, p. 439). 
 CURRENT RESEARCH
• In Anniversary article : Classroom
SLA research and second language
teaching, Lightbown and other
researchers agree with Krashen's
belief that reading is a positive
medium to promote comprehensible
input
(Lightbown & Spada, 2000, p. 440).
• ELLs should be provided
comprehensible input above their
current level of understanding as
stated in Krashen's input hypothesis
(Lightbown, 2000, p. 443).
CURRENT RESEARCH
• In the article Pedagogies Proving Krashen’s
Theory of Affective Filter, Grace Hui Chin
Lin, believes that language acquisition can
be effective and efficient for ELLs when the
experience is relaxing and provides means in
which they can be confident and motivated
(Lin, 2008, p. 117).
• Lin believes that in order for Krashen’s
affective filter theory to be effective, there
must be a connection between ELLs’
interests, self-esteem, attitudes and
motivation to promote confidence in the
language acquisition process through the use
of games, music, and movies (Lin, 2008, p.
C URRENT RESEARCH
• Supplementing Krashen's SLA
Theory, written by Xiao-Yue-Hai,
discusses Krashen's second language
acquisition theory. Yue-hai believes
that Krashen’s SLA theory can have a
better outcome if a few elements were
added.
• Yue-Hai believes that L1 can
promote comprehension, reading, and
writing in L2; that when L1and L2 are
utilized together, L2 acquisition is
obtained more efficiently and
effectively due to prior knowledge
(Yue-hai, 2008, p. 17).
 CURRENT RESEARCH
• In the article, Supplementing Krashen's
SLA Theory, Yue-hai believes that
Krashen’s SLA theory does not address
how children and adults acquire a
second language (Yue-Hai, 2008,
p.17).
• Yue-Hai believes that children acquire
a second language by listening,
speaking, reading, and writing in this
order. Adults, on the other hand,
acquire a second language by reading,
listening, writing, and speaking (Yue-
hai, 2008, p. 17).
SLA in the Classroom
• Principle 6: Successful instructed
language learning requires extensive
language input (Ellis, 2008, p. 3). This
principle states that language learners
must be exposed to the new language in
order to acquire it.
• The new language needs to be present
inside the classroom and the schools
need to provide resources to aid in
language acquisition, such as extensive
reading programs and self-access centers
(Ellis, 2008, p. 4).
 SLA in the Classroom
•Principle 9: Instruction needs to
accommodate the individual
differences of language learners
(Ellis, 2008, p. 5). Learning will be
more successful when the instruction
is matched to the ELLs’ particular
aptitude for learning and when the
ELLs are motivated (Ellis, 2008, p.
5).
•The teacher should be aware of the
learning styles and pace of their
ELLs and offer motivation to
enhance the language acquisition
process.
SLA in the Classroom
• Generalization 6: Isolated
explicit error is usually
ineffective in changing
language behavior (Lightbown,
2000, pp. 446-448).
• Error correction can be utilized
through recasts, or utterances by
the teacher that rephrases the
utterance of the learner,
preserving the original
meaning, but correcting the
error(s) that occurred in the
original utterance (Long and
Robinson 1998).
 SLA in the Classroom
•The ESL teacher must be prepared to
work with children from various
cultural, social, and linguistic
backgrounds (Fillmore and Snow, 2001,
p. 5).
•The ESL teacher must respect the
ELLs’ home languages and cultures and
incorporate these values into the
classroom and learning experience
(Fillmore and Snow, 2001, p. 12)
SLA in the Classroom
• The ESL teacher should emphasize
comprehension in the second language
acquisition process because
comprehension leads to better
acquisition, better retention, and
positive student attitudes (Krashen,
1985, p. 15).
• The ESL teacher should provide
instruction to promote and enhance the
language learners’ comprehension level
and skills through reading, role-
playing, and talking to each other
(Krashen, 1985, p. 15).
 REFERENCES
Fillmore, L. W., & Snow, C. E. (2000). What teachers need to know
about language. Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics,
Special Report.
Retrieved from http://www.cal.org/ericll/teachers/teachers.pdf

Krashen, S.D. (1985a). The input hypothesis: Issues and implications.

London: Longman

Lightbown, P. (2000). Anniversary article: Classroom SLA research and

second language teaching. Applied Linguistics, 21 (4), 431-462.
 REFERENCES
Lightbown, P. & Spada, N. (2006). How languages are
learned, (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford  University Press.

Lin, Grace Hui Chin. (2008). Pedagogies Proving Krashen’s Theory

of Affective Filter. Hwa Kang Journal of English Language and
Literature, n14, p. 113-131. Retrieved from
http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?_n
fpb

McLaughlin, B. (1990). "Conscious" versus "Unconscious"

Learning. TESOL Quarterly, 24 (4), 617-634.
 REFERENCES
You Tube (Constantinide, M.). (1982). Stephen Krashen on Second
Language Acquisition, Part 1 of 2. [Video file]. Retrieved from
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vh6Hy6El86Q
 
Yue-hai, X. (2008). Supplementing Krashen's SLA theory, US-China
Foreign Language, 6 ,(7), 15-18. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.