Definition of Logic

 The term "logic" came from the Greek word

logos, which is sometimes translated as
"sentence", "discourse", "reason", "rule", and
"ratio".
 The science of Reasoning.
 A study of the principles and methods used to
distinguish good from bad reasoning.
 The study of the principles of correct
reasoning.
 Sentences
 Sentences are the arranged strings of words.
 Sentence are either meaningful or meaningless.
a) A cat is sitting on the mat. ( meaningful)
b) A tac is sitting on the mat. ( meaningless)
 Sentences are either correct or incorrect if they
do not fulfill the syntactical requirements of any
language.
 Proposition
 Some sentences can be verified by sense
experience… for example…
a) It is raining outside.
b) Today is Sunday.
c) Zardari is the President of Pakistan.
d) 2+2=4
e) Human beings are mortal.
 Premise / Premises
 A proposition or propositions antecedently
supposed or proved as a basis of argument or
inference.
 A sentence or sentences use to serve as the base
or ground to find out the conclusion.
All men are mortal. (Premise)
Ali is a man. (Premise)
Therefore Ali is mortal ( Conclusion)
 Some Premise Indicators
 Since
 Because
 Although
 And
 But
 For
 Conclusion
 A sentence drawn by premise or premises.

All men are mortal. (Premise)

Ali is a man. (Premise)
Ali is mortal (Conclusion)
 Some Conclusion Indicators
 Therefore
 Whence
 Hence
 So
 Consequently
 As a result
 It can be concluded…

An argument is a combination of
premise / premises and conclusion…
2
+2
4
 No mango is sweet.
Therefore, No sweet is mango.
The use of logical thinking in order to find
results or draw conclusions.
The act or process of drawing conclusions

from facts, evidence, etc.

The process of drawing conclusion from

data for example… 2 + 2 = 4.

Applying the faculty of reason to analyze

data in order to get conclusion.

 Inference
 The act of passing from one proposition,
statement, or judgment considered as true to
another whose truth is believed to follow
from that of the former.
 Inference is the process by which we move
toward conclusion from premises by applying
reason.
 A process of reasoning…
 Kinds of Reasoning

There are two kinds of reasoning:

 Deductive Reasoning

 Inductive Reasoning
 Deductive Argument
 When conclusion is completely supported by
its premises, it will be a deductive argument.
 Deductive reasoning, or deduction, starts with
a general case and deduces specific instances.
 A deductive argument is valid if the
conclusion does follow necessarily from the
premises, i.e., if the conclusion must be true
provided that the premises are true otherwise
it will be invalid.
.
Example of a Valid Deductive Argument

All men are mortal. (Premise) = True

Ali is a man (Premise) = True
∴ Ali is mortal (Conclusion) = True
Example of an Invalid Deductive Argument

All men are mortal. (Premise) = True

Ali is a man (Premise) = True
∴ Ali is not mortal (Conclusion) = False
 Inductive Reasoning

 Inductive reasoning, or induction, is reasoning

from a specific case or cases and deriving a
general rule. It draws inferences from
observations in order to make generalizations.
 An Inductive Argument is more or less
probable… it’s truth value always remains
uncertain.
 Inference can be done in four stages:

1. Observation: collect facts, without bias.

2. Analysis: classify the facts, identifying
patterns of regularity.
3. Inference: From the patterns, infer
generalizations about the relations
between the facts.
4. Confirmation: Testing the inference
through further observation.
 Inductive arguments can include:

1. Part-to-whole: where the whole is assumed

to be like individual parts (only bigger).
2. Extrapolations: where areas beyond the area
of study are assumed to be like the studied
area.
3. Predictions: where the future is assumed to
be like the past.
 Example of an inductive Argument

Ali is a man and Ali is mortal.

Saif is a man and Saif is mortal.
Irfan is a man and Irfan is mortal.
Saad is a man and Saad is mortal.
Qasim is a man and Qasim is mortal.
∴ All men are mortal
 Truth, Validity & Soundness
 Truth: a property of statements, i.e., that they
are the case.
 Validity: a property of arguments, i.e., that they
have a good structure. (The premises and
conclusion are so related that it is absolutely
impossible for the premises to be true unless the
conclusion is true also.)
 Soundness: a property of both arguments and
the statements in them, i.e., the argument is
valid and all the statement are true.
 Terms & Classes or Categories
 A term can be the name of a class or a
group… for example, cat is a name of a group
of animals having some common features.
 A class/category is a group of things, people
or animals having common features… for
example:
Class of Cats
Class of Dogs
Class of Politicians
 Categorical Proposition
 A categorical proposition joins together
exactly two categorical terms and asserts that
some relationship holds between the classes
they designate.
Cats are mammals.
In the above statement cats are representing
a class and mammals is also a name of a class.
 4 Categorical Propositions
 There are four types of categorical
propositions.
 A = All men are mortal.
 E = No man is mortal.
 I = Some men are mortal.
 O = Some men are not mortal.
 Quality & Quantity
 Quality
A Proposition can be affirming something or
denying something. If it affirms then it would be
an Affirmative Proposition…, if it denies then it
would be a Negative Proposition.
All students are present. (Affirmative)
Some students are not present. (Negative )
 Quality & Quantity
 Quantity
A Proposition can be consisting of all
members of any Class (universal) or some
members of that class (particular).
All students are present. (universal)
Some students are present. (particular)
 Distribution
 When a term refers to all of its’ members
(designated by that term), it will be a
distributed term.
 “A” distributes it subject only because it
represents all members of its class.
A = All toys are broken.
A = All boys are intelligent.
 Distribution
 “E” distributes its’ subject and its’ predicate
both, because they represent all members of
their classes respectively.
 E = No student is absent.
 E = No boy is intelligent.
 Distribution
 “I” distributes none of its’ subject or its’
predicate term. Both terms are showing some
members of their class.

I = Some fruits are sweet.

I = Some politicians are loyal.
 Distribution
 “O” does not distribute its’ subject term. It
distributes its’ predicate only.

O = Some fruits are not sweet.

O = Some politicians are not loyal.
 CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS
A BIRD EYE VIEW
Code Quality Quantity Subject Predicate
Distribution Distribution

A Affirmative Universal Yes No

E Negative Universal Yes Yes

I Affirmative Particular No No

O Negative Particular No Yes

The Traditional Square of Opposition
 The square of opposition is a chart that was
introduced within classical (categorical) logic
to represent the logical relationships holding
between certain propositions in virtue of their
form. The square, traditionally conceived,
looks like this…
The relationship between A and E proposition is
Contrary. They cannot both be true at the same time.
So if you know that one is true, then you also know
that the other is false. (They can, however, both be
false simultaneously.)
A= All roses are red. T / F
E= No rose is red. F / T
 Sub-Contraries
 Sub-Contraries are exactly the opposite of
contraries. It is always the case that at least
one is true. If you know that one is false, then
you automatically know that the other is true.
(They can however both be true
simultaneously.)
 I = Some roses are red .
 O = Some roses are not red.
 Sub-alternation
 · With Sub-alternation, you should remember
that you can go down with true (i.e. if A is
true, then I is true as well) and up with false
(i.e., if I is false, then A is false as well.) But
not vice versa.
 Contradictories
 The Contradictories, [(A&O), (E&I)] cannot
both be true at the same time and in the same
sense.  One true and one false, but both
cannot be true at the same time.
 Types of Inference
 Immediate inference
We draw conclusion from a single premise.

 Mediate Inference
Premises can be two (minimum) or
more than two…
 Chart for Truth Values of the Propositions

A=True E=False I= True O= False

E=True A=False I=False O=True

I= True E= False A= O=undetermined

undetermined

O=True A= False I= undetermined E=undetermined

 Chart for Truth Values of the Propositions

A= False O= True I=undetermined E=

undetermined

E=False I= True A=undetermined O=undetermine

d
I=False E=True A=False O=true

O=False A=True E= False I= True

 Conclusion
∴ A: All mangoes are delicious.

( Subject term ( Predicate Term or

or Minor Term ) Major Term
 SYLLOGISTIC ARGUMENT
Middle Term Predicate Term
Major
premise
A: All sweet fruits are delicious.
Subject term Middle Term

A: All mangoes are sweet fruits. Minor

Premise

∴ A: All mangoes are delicious. Conclusion

( Subject term ( Predicate Term or

or Minor Term ) Major Term)
 SYLLOGISTIC ARGUMENT
 Subject Term: subject term of the conclusion…
also called the minor term for the arrangement
of premises.
 Predicate Term: predicate term of the
conclusion… also called the major term for the
arrangement of premises.
 Middle Term: can be the predicate or subject ot
the respective premise… never comes in the
conclusion, but occurs twice in the premises.