Cluster Analysis: Concepts and Techniques - Chapter 7

Data Mining:
Concepts and Techniques
— Chapter 7 —
 Cluster Analysis
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 1

Chapter 7. Cluster Analysis
1. What is Cluster Analysis?
2. Types of Data in Cluster Analysis
3. A Categorization of Major Clustering Methods
4. Partitioning Methods
5. Hierarchical Methods
6. Density-Based Methods
7. Grid-Based Methods
8. Model-Based Methods
9. Clustering High-Dimensional Data
10. Constraint-Based Clustering
11. Outlier Analysis
12. Summary
What is Cluster Analysis?
 Cluster: a collection of data objects
 Similar to one another within the same cluster
 Dissimilar to the objects in other clusters
 Cluster analysis
 Finding similarities between data according to the
characteristics found in the data and grouping similar
data objects into clusters
 Unsupervised learning: no predefined classes
 Typical applications
 As a stand-alone tool to get insight into data distribution
 As a preprocessing step for other algorithms
Examples of Clustering Applications
 Marketing: Help marketers discover distinct groups in their customer
bases, and then use this knowledge to develop targeted marketing
programs
 Land use: Identification of areas of similar land use in an earth
observation database
 Insurance: Identifying groups of motor insurance policy holders with
a high average claim cost
 City-planning: Identifying groups of houses according to their house
type, value, and geographical location
 Earth-quake studies: Observed earth quake epicenters should be
clustered along continent faults
Quality: What Is Good Clustering?
 A good clustering method will produce high quality

clusters with
 high intra-class similarity
 low inter-class similarity
 The quality of a clustering result depends on both the
similarity measure used by the method and its
implementation
 The quality of a clustering method is also measured by its
ability to discover some or all of the hidden patterns

Measure the Quality of Clustering
 Dissimilarity/Similarity metric: Similarity is expressed in

terms of a distance function, typically metric: d(i, j)
 There is a separate “quality” function that measures the
“goodness” of a cluster.
 The definitions of distance functions are usually very
different for interval-scaled, boolean, categorical, ordinal
ratio, and vector variables.
 Weights should be associated with different variables
based on applications and data semantics.
 It is hard to define “similar enough” or “good enough”
 the answer is typically highly subjective.
Requirements of Clustering in Data Mining
 Scalability
 Ability to deal with different types of attributes
 Ability to handle dynamic data
 Discovery of clusters with arbitrary shape
 Minimal requirements for domain knowledge to determine
input parameters
 Able to deal with noise and outliers
 Insensitive to order of input records
 High dimensionality
 Incorporation of user-specified constraints
 Interpretability and usability
12. Summary
Data Structures
 Data matrix
 x11 ... x1f ... x1p 
 (two modes)  
 ... ... ... ... ... 
x ... xif ... xip 
 i1 
 ... ... ... ... ... 
x ... xnf ... xnp 
 n1 
 Dissimilarity matrix  0 
 (one mode)  d(2,1) 0 
 
 d(3,1) d ( 3,2) 0 
 
 : : : 
d ( n,1) d ( n,2) ... ... 0

Type of data in clustering analysis
 Interval-scaled variables
 Binary variables
 Nominal, ordinal, and ratio variables
 Variables of mixed types

Interval-valued variables
 Standardize data
 Calculate the mean absolute deviation:
s f  1n (| x1 f  m f |  | x2 f  m f | ... | xnf  m f |)
where m f  1n (x1 f  x2 f  ...  xnf )

.
 Calculate the standardized measurement (z-score)

xif  m f
zif  sf
 Using mean absolute deviation is more robust than using

standard deviation

Similarity and Dissimilarity Between
Objects
 Distances are normally used to measure the similarity or

dissimilarity between two data objects
 Some popular ones include: Minkowski distance:
d (i, j)  q (| x  x |q  | x  x |q ... | x  x |q )
i1 j1 i2 j2 ip jp
where i = (xi1, xi2, …, xip) and j = (xj1, xj2, …, xjp) are
two p-dimensional data objects, and q is a positive
integer
 If q = 1, d is Manhattan distance
d (i, j) | x  x |  | x  x | ... | x  x |
i1 j1 i2 j 2 ip j p

Similarity and Dissimilarity Between
Objects (Cont.)
 If q = 2, d is Euclidean distance:
d (i, j)  (| x  x | 2  | x  x |2 ... | x  x |2 )
i1 j1 i2 j2 ip jp
 Properties
 d(i,j)  0
 d(i,i) = 0
 d(i,j) = d(j,i)
 d(i,j)  d(i,k) + d(k,j)
 Also, one can use weighted distance, parametric
Pearson product moment correlation, or other
disimilarity measures

Binary Variables
Object j
1 0 sum
 A contingency table for binary 1 a b a b
Object i
data 0 c d cd
sum a  c b  d p
 Distance measure for bc
d (i, j) 
symmetric binary variables: a bc  d
 Distance measure for bc
d (i, j) 
asymmetric binary variables: a bc
 Jaccard coefficient (similarity
measure for asymmetric simJaccard (i, j)  a
a bc
binary variables):
Dissimilarity between Binary Variables
 Example
Name Gender Fever Cough Test-1 Test-2 Test-3 Test-4
Jack M Y N P N N N
Mary F Y N P N P N
Jim M Y P N N N N
 gender is a symmetric attribute

 the remaining attributes are asymmetric binary
 let the values Y and P be set to 1, and the value N be set to 0
01
d ( jack , mary )   0.33
2 01
11
d ( jack , jim )   0.67
111
1 2
d ( jim , mary )   0.75
11 2
Nominal Variables
 A generalization of the binary variable in that it can take

more than 2 states, e.g., red, yellow, blue, green
 Method 1: Simple matching
 m: # of matches, p: total # of variables
d (i, j)  p 
p
m
 Method 2: use a large number of binary variables

 creating a new binary variable for each of the M nominal
states

Ordinal Variables
 An ordinal variable can be discrete or continuous

 Order is important, e.g., rank
 Can be treated like interval-scaled
rif {1,..., M f }
 replace xif by their rank
 map the range of each variable onto [0, 1] by replacing
i-th object in the f-th variable by
rif 1
zif 
M f 1
 compute the dissimilarity using methods for interval-
scaled variables
Ratio-Scaled Variables
 Ratio-scaled variable: a positive measurement on a nonlinear

scale, approximately at exponential scale, such as AeBt or
Ae-Bt
 Methods:
 treat them like interval-scaled variables— not a good
choice! (why?—the scale can be distorted)
 apply logarithmic transformation
yif = log(xif)
 treat them as continuous ordinal data treat their rank as
interval-scaled

Variables of Mixed Types
 A database may contain all the six types of variables

 symmetric binary, asymmetric binary, nominal,
ordinal, interval and ratio

 One may use a weighted formula to combine their
effects  pf  1 ij( f ) d ij( f )
d (i, j ) 
 pf  1 ij( f )
 f is binary or nominal:
dij(f) = 0 if xif = xjf , or dij(f) = 1 otherwise

 f is interval-based: use the normalized distance
 f is ordinal or ratio-scaled
 compute ranks r and

if
z 
r 1
if
 and treat z as interval-scaled
if
if M 1 f

Vector Objects
 Vector objects: keywords in documents, gene

features in micro-arrays, etc.
 Broad applications: information retrieval, biologic
taxonomy, etc.
 Cosine measure
 A variant: Tanimoto coefficient

12. Summary
Major Clustering Approaches (I)
 Partitioning approach:
 Construct various partitions and then evaluate them by some criterion,
e.g., minimizing the sum of square errors
 Typical methods: k-means, k-medoids, CLARANS
 Hierarchical approach:
 Create a hierarchical decomposition of the set of data (or objects) using
some criterion
 Typical methods: Diana, Agnes, BIRCH, ROCK, CAMELEON
 Grid-based approach:
 based on a multiple-level granularity structure
 Typical methods: STING, WaveCluster, CLIQUE

12. Summary
Partitioning Algorithms: Basic Concept
 Partitioning method: Construct a partition of a database D of n objects
into a set of k clusters, s.t., min sum of squared distance
 km1tmiKm (Cm  tmi ) 2

 Given a k, find a partition of k clusters that optimizes the chosen
partitioning criterion
 methods: k-means and k-medoids algorithms
 k-means : Each cluster is represented by the center of the cluster
 k-medoids or PAM (Partition around medoids) : Each cluster is
represented by one of the objects in the cluster

The K-Means Clustering Method
 Given k, the k-means algorithm is implemented in

four steps:
 Partition objects into k nonempty subsets
 Compute seed points as the centroids of the
clusters of the current partition (the centroid is the
center, i.e., mean point, of the cluster)
 Assign each object to the cluster with the nearest
seed point
 Go back to Step 2, stop when no more new
assignment

The K-Means Clustering Method
 Example
10 10
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6 6
6
5 5
5
4 4
4
Assign 3 Update 3
the
3
each
2 2
2
1
objects
1
0
cluster 1
0
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 to most
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 means 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
similar
center reassign reassign
10 10
K=2 9 9
8 8
Arbitrarily choose K 7 7
6 6
object as initial 5 5
cluster center 4 Update 4
2
the 3
1 cluster 1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
means 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Comments on the K-Means Method
 Strength: Relatively efficient:

 Weakness
 Applicable only when mean is defined, then what about
categorical data?
 Need to specify k, the number of clusters, in advance
 Unable to handle noisy data and outliers
 Not suitable to discover clusters with non-convex
shapes

Variations of the K-Means Method
 A few variants of the k-means which differ in

 Selection of the initial k means
 Dissimilarity calculations
 Strategies to calculate cluster means
 Handling categorical data: k-modes
 Replacing means of clusters with modes
 Using new dissimilarity measures to deal with categorical objects
 Using a frequency-based method to update modes of clusters
 A mixture of categorical and numerical data: k-prototype method

What Is the Problem of the K-Means Method?
 The k-means algorithm is sensitive to outliers !

 Since an object with an extremely large value may substantially
distort the distribution of the data.
 K-Medoids: Instead of taking the mean value of the object in a
cluster as a reference point, medoids can be used, which is the most
centrally located object in a cluster.
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2 2
1 1
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The K-Medoids Clustering Method
 Find representative objects, called medoids, in clusters

 PAM (Partitioning Around Medoids, 1987)
 starts from an initial set of medoids and iteratively
replaces one of the medoids by one of the non-
medoids if it improves the total distance of the
resulting clustering
 PAM works effectively for small data sets, but does
not scale well for large data sets

A Typical K-Medoids Algorithm (PAM)
Total Cost = 20
10 10 10
9 9 9
8 8 8
Arbitrary Assign
7 7 7
6 6 6
5
choose k 5 each 5
4 object as 4 remainin 4
3
initial 3
g object 3
2
medoids 2
to 2
nearest
1 1 1
0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
medoids 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
K=2 Randomly select a

Total Cost = 26 nonmedoid object,Oramdom
10 10
9 9
8 Compute 8
Swapping O 7 total cost of 7
and Oramdom 6
swapping 6
5 5
If quality is 4 4
improved. 3
2
3
1 1
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

PAM (Partitioning Around Medoids) (1987)
 Use real object to represent the cluster

 Select k representative objects arbitrarily
 For each pair of non-selected object h and selected
object i, calculate the total swapping cost TCih
 For each pair of i and h,
 If TCih < 0, i is replaced by h
 Then assign each non-selected object to the most
similar representative object
 repeat steps 2-3 until there is no change

PAM Clustering: Total swapping cost TCih=jCjih
10 10
9 9
j
8
t 8
t
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j 6
4
i h 4
h
3
2
3
2
i
1 1
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Cjih = d(j, h) - d(j, i) Cjih = 0
10
10
9
9
h
8
8
j
7
7
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6
5
5 i
i h j
t
4
4
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2
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1
t
1
0
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
C
December 8, 2021jih CjihTechniques
= d(j, t) - d(j, i) Data Mining: Concepts and = d(j, h) - d(j, t) 33
What Is the Problem with PAM?
 Pam is more robust than k-means in the presence of

noise and outliers because a medoid is less influenced by
outliers or other extreme values than a mean
 Pam works efficiently for small data sets but does not
scale well for large data sets.
 O(k(n-k)2 ) for each iteration
where n is # of data,k is # of clusters
 Sampling based method,
CLARA(Clustering LARge Applications)

CLARA (Clustering Large Applications) (1990)
 CLARA (Kaufmann and Rousseeuw in 1990)

 Built in statistical analysis packages, such as S+
 It draws multiple samples of the data set, applies PAM on
each sample, and gives the best clustering as the output
 Strength: deals with larger data sets than PAM
 Weakness:
 Efficiency depends on the sample size
 A good clustering based on samples will not necessarily
represent a good clustering of the whole data set if the
sample is biased

CLARANS (“Randomized” CLARA) (1994)
 CLARANS (A Clustering Algorithm based on Randomized

Search) (Ng and Han’94)
 CLARANS draws sample of neighbors dynamically
 The clustering process can be presented as searching a
graph where every node is a potential solution, that is, a
set of k medoids
 If the local optimum is found, CLARANS starts with new
randomly selected node in search for a new local optimum
 It is more efficient and scalable than both PAM and CLARA
 Focusing techniques and spatial access structures may
further improve its performance (Ester et al.’95)
12. Summary
Hierarchical Clustering
 Use distance matrix as clustering criteria. This method

does not require the number of clusters k as an input,
but needs a termination condition
Step 0 Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4
agglomerative
(AGNES)
a
ab
b abcde
c
cde
d
de
e
divisive
Step 4 Step 3 Step 2 Step 1 Step 0 (DIANA)
AGNES (Agglomerative Nesting)
 Implemented in statistical analysis packages,
 Use the Single-Link method and the dissimilarity matrix.
 Merge nodes that have the least dissimilarity
 Go on in a non-descending fashion
 Eventually all nodes belong to the same cluster
10 10 10
9 9 9
8 8 8
7 7 7
6 6 6
5 5 5
4 4 4
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Dendrogram: Shows How the Clusters are Merged
Decompose data objects into a several levels of nested

partitioning (tree of clusters), called a dendrogram.
A clustering of the data objects is obtained by cutting the

dendrogram at the desired level, then each connected
component forms a cluster.

DIANA (Divisive Analysis)
 Introduced in Kaufmann and Rousseeuw (1990)

 Implemented in statistical analysis packages, e.g., Splus
 Inverse order of AGNES
 Eventually each node forms a cluster on its own
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1 1
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0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Recent Hierarchical Clustering Methods
 Major weakness of agglomerative clustering methods

 do not scale well: time complexity of at least O(n2),
where n is the number of total objects
 can never undo what was done previously
 Integration of hierarchical with distance-based clustering
 BIRCH (1996): uses CF-tree and incrementally adjusts
the quality of sub-clusters
 ROCK (1999): clustering categorical data by neighbor
and link analysis
 CHAMELEON (1999): hierarchical clustering using
dynamic modeling
BIRCH (1996)
 Birch: Balanced Iterative Reducing and Clustering using
Hierarchies (Zhang, Ramakrishnan & Livny, SIGMOD’96)
 Incrementally construct a CF (Clustering Feature) tree, a
hierarchical data structure for multiphase clustering
 Phase 1: scan DB to build an initial in-memory CF tree (a
multi-level compression of the data that tries to preserve the
inherent clustering structure of the data)
 Phase 2: use an arbitrary clustering algorithm to cluster the
leaf nodes of the CF-tree
 Scales linearly: finds a good clustering with a single scan and
improves the quality with a few additional scans
 Weakness: handles only numeric data, and sensitive to the
order of the data record.
Clustering Feature Vector in BIRCH
Clustering Feature: CF = (N, LS, SS)

N: Number of data points
LS: Ni=1=Xi
SS: Ni=1=Xi2 CF = (5, (16,30),(54,190))
10
9
(3,4)
(2,6)
8
(4,5)
5
1
(4,7)
(3,8)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

CF-Tree in BIRCH
 Clustering feature:
 summary of the statistics for a given subcluster: the 0-th, 1st and
2nd moments of the subcluster from the statistical point of view.
 A CF tree is a height-balanced tree that stores the clustering
features for a hierarchical clustering
 A nonleaf node in a tree has descendants or “children”
 The nonleaf nodes store sums of the CFs of their children
 A CF tree has two parameters
 Branching factor: specify the maximum number of children.
 threshold: max diameter of sub-clusters stored at the leaf nodes

The CF Tree Structure
Root
B=7 CF1 CF2 CF3 CF6
L=6 child1 child2 child3 child6
Non-leaf node
CF1 CF2 CF3 CF5
child1 child2 child3 child5
Leaf node Leaf node

prev CF1 CF2 CF6 next prev CF1 CF2 CF4 next

Clustering Categorical Data: The ROCK Algorithm
 ROCK: RObust Clustering using linKs

 Major ideas
 Use links to measure similarity/proximity
 Not distance-based
 Algorithm: sampling-based clustering

 Draw random sample
 Cluster with links O(n 2  nmmma  n 2 log n)

 Label data in disk

Similarity Measure in ROCK
 Traditional measures for categorical data may not work well, e.g.,
Jaccard coefficient
 Example: Two groups (clusters) of transactions
 C1. <a, b, c, d, e>: {a, b, c}, {a, b, d}, {a, b, e}, {a, c, d}, {a,
c, e}, {a, d, e}, {b, c, d}, {b, c, e}, {b, d, e}, {c, d, e}
 C2. <a, b, f, g>: {a, b, f}, {a, b, g}, {a, f, g}, {b, f, g}
 Jaccard co-efficient may lead to wrong clustering result
 C1: 0.2 ({a, b, c}, {b, d, e}} to 0.5 ({a, b, c}, {a, b, d})
 C1 & C2: could be as high as 0.5 ({a, b, c}, {a, b, f})
 Jaccard co-efficient-based similarity function: T1  T2
Sim( T1 , T2 ) 
T1  T2
 Ex. Let T1 = {a, b, c}, T2 = {c, d, e}
{c} 1
Sim(T 1, T 2)    0.2
{a, b, c, d , e} 5

Link Measure in ROCK
 Links: # of common neighbors
 C1 <a, b, c, d, e>: {a, b, c}, {a, b, d}, {a, b, e}, {a, c, d}, {a, c,
e}, {a, d, e}, {b, c, d}, {b, c, e}, {b, d, e}, {c, d, e}
 C2 <a, b, f, g>: {a, b, f}, {a, b, g}, {a, f, g}, {b, f, g}
 Let T1 = {a, b, c}, T2 = {c, d, e}, T3 = {a, b, f}
 link(T1, T2) = 4, since they have 4 common neighbors
 {a, c, d}, {a, c, e}, {b, c, d}, {b, c, e}
 link(T1, T3) = 3, since they have 3 common neighbors
 {a, b, d}, {a, b, e}, {a, b, g}

CHAMELEON: Hierarchical Clustering Using
Dynamic Modeling (1999)
 Two clusters are merged only if the interconnectivity
and closeness (proximity) between two clusters are high
relative to the internal interconnectivity of the clusters
and closeness of items within the clusters
 A two-phase algorithm
1. Use a graph partitioning algorithm: cluster objects into a
large number of relatively small sub-clusters
2. Use an agglomerative hierarchical clustering algorithm:
find the genuine clusters by repeatedly combining these
sub-clusters

Overall Framework of CHAMELEON
Construct
Sparse Graph Partition the Graph
Data Set
Merge Partition
Final Clusters

CHAMELEON (Clustering Complex Objects)

Grid-Based Clustering Method
 Using multi-resolution grid data structure

 Several interesting methods
 STING (a STatistical INformation Grid approach) by Wang,
Yang and Muntz (1997)
 WaveCluster by Sheikholeslami, Chatterjee, and Zhang
(VLDB’98)
 A multi-resolution clustering approach using wavelet
method
 CLIQUE: Agrawal, et al. (SIGMOD’98)
 On high-dimensional data (thus put in the section of clustering
high-dimensional data

STING: A Statistical Information Grid Approach
 Wang, Yang and Muntz (VLDB’97)

 The spatial area area is divided into rectangular cells
 There are several levels of cells corresponding to different
levels of resolution

The STING Clustering Method
 Each cell at a high level is partitioned into a number of

smaller cells in the next lower level
 Statistical info of each cell is calculated and stored
beforehand and is used to answer queries
 Parameters of higher level cells can be easily calculated from
parameters of lower level cell
 count, mean, s, min, max
 type of distribution—normal, uniform, etc.
 Use a top-down approach to answer spatial data queries

 Start from a pre-selected layer—typically with a small
number of cells
 For each cell in the current level compute the confidence
interval
Comments on STING
 Remove the irrelevant cells from further consideration
 When finish examining the current layer, proceed to the
next lower level
 Repeat this process until the bottom layer is reached
 Advantages:
 Query-independent, easy to parallelize, incremental
update
 O(K), where K is the number of grid cells at the lowest
level
 Disadvantages:
 All the cluster boundaries are either horizontal or
vertical, and no diagonal boundary is detected

WaveCluster: Clustering by Wavelet Analysis (1998)
 Sheikholeslami, Chatterjee, and Zhang (VLDB’98)

 A multi-resolution clustering approach which applies wavelet
transform to the feature space
 How to apply wavelet transform to find clusters
 Summarizes the data by imposing a multidimensional grid
structure onto data space
 These multidimensional spatial data objects are represented in a
n-dimensional feature space
 Apply wavelet transform on feature space to find the dense
regions in the feature space
 Apply wavelet transform multiple times which result in clusters at
different scales from fine to coarse
Wavelet Transform
 Wavelet transform: A signal processing technique that
decomposes a signal into different frequency sub-band
(can be applied to n-dimensional signals)
 Data are transformed to preserve relative distance
between objects at different levels of resolution
 Allows natural clusters to become more distinguishable

The WaveCluster Algorithm
 Input parameters
 # of grid cells for each dimension
 the wavelet, and the # of applications of wavelet transform
 Why is wavelet transformation useful for clustering?

 Use hat-shape filters to emphasize region where points cluster,
but simultaneously suppress weaker information in their

boundary
 Effective removal of outliers, multi-resolution, cost effective
 Major features:
 Complexity O(N)
 Detect arbitrary shaped clusters at different scales
 Not sensitive to noise, not sensitive to input order
 Only applicable to low dimensional data
 Both grid-based and density-based

Quantization
& Transformation
 First, quantize data into m-D grid
structure, then wavelet transform
 a) scale 1: high resolution
 b) scale 2: medium resolution
 c) scale 3: low resolution

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Data Mining:

Concepts and Techniques

December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 1

 A good clustering method will produce high quality

December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 5

 Dissimilarity/Similarity metric: Similarity is expressed in

December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 9

December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 10

where m f  1n (x1 f  x2 f  ...  xnf )

 Calculate the standardized measurement (z-score)

 Using mean absolute deviation is more robust than using

December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 11

 Distances are normally used to measure the similarity or

December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 12

December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 13

 gender is a symmetric attribute

 A generalization of the binary variable in that it can take

 Method 2: use a large number of binary variables

December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 16

 An ordinal variable can be discrete or continuous

 Ratio-scaled variable: a positive measurement on a nonlinear

December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 18

 A database may contain all the six types of variables

ordinal, interval and ratio

dij(f) = 0 if xif = xjf , or dij(f) = 1 otherwise

 compute ranks r and

December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 19

 Vector objects: keywords in documents, gene

 A variant: Tanimoto coefficient

December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 20

December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 22

 km1tmiKm (Cm  tmi ) 2

December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 24

 Given k, the k-means algorithm is implemented in

December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 25

cluster center 4 Update 4

December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 26

 Strength: Relatively efficient:

December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 27

 A few variants of the k-means which differ in

December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 28

 The k-means algorithm is sensitive to outliers !

December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 29

 Find representative objects, called medoids, in clusters

December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 30

K=2 Randomly select a

December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 31

 Use real object to represent the cluster

December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 32

Cjih = d(j, h) - d(j, i) Cjih = 0

 Pam is more robust than k-means in the presence of

December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 34

 CLARA (Kaufmann and Rousseeuw in 1990)

December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 35

 CLARANS (A Clustering Algorithm based on Randomized

 Use distance matrix as clustering criteria. This method

December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 39

Decompose data objects into a several levels of nested

A clustering of the data objects is obtained by cutting the