Lec 05

5306-GROUNDWATER DEVELOPMENT
DEVELOPMENT
5306-GROUNDWATER
Hydraulics of Wells
Advanced Hydrogeology
Hydraulic Testing
Well Hydraulics
• A water well is a hydraulic structure that is designed and

constructed to permit economic withdrawal of water from
an aquifer
• Water well construction includes:
• Selection of appropriate drilling methods
• Selection of appropriate completion materials
• Analysis and interpretation of well and
aquifer performance
Pumping Well Terminology
Q • Static Water Level [SWL] (ho) is
the equilibrium water level before
pumping commences
• Pumping Water Level [PWL] (h)
s is the water level during pumping
• Drawdown (s = ho - h) is the
difference between SWL and PWL
ho • Well Yield (Q) is the volume of
h water pumped per unit time
• Specific Capacity (Q/s) is the
yield per unit drawdown
Cone of Depression
High Kh aquifer
Kh  Kv
Low Kh aquifer
• A zone of low pressure is created centred on the pumping well
• Drawdown is a maximum at the well and reduces radially
• Head gradient decreases away from the well and the pattern
resembles an inverted cone called the cone of depression
• The cone expands over time until the inflows (from various
boundaries) match the well extraction
• The shape of the equilibrium cone is controlled by hydraulic
conductivity
Aquifer Characteristics
• Pump tests allow estimation of transmission and storage

characteristics of aquifers
• Transmissivity (T = Kb) is the rate of flow through a
vertical strip of aquifer (thickness b) of unit width under a
unit hydraulic gradient
• Storage Coefficient (S = Sy + Ssb) is storage change per
unit volume of aquifer per unit change in head
• Radius of Influence (R) for a well is the maximum
horizontal extent of the cone of depression when the well
is in equilibrium with inflows
Steady Radial Confined Flow
Q • Assumptions
Isotropic, homogeneous, infinite
r aquifer, 2-D radial flow
s
• Initial Conditions
h ho h(r,0) = ho for all r
• Boundary Conditions
b
h(R,t) = ho for all t
• Darcy’s Law Q = -2rbKh/r • Using BC ho = - Q ln(R) + c
• Rearranging h = - Q r 2Kb
2Kb r • Eliminating constant (c) gives
• Integrating h = - Q ln(r) + c s = ho – h = Q ln(r/R)
2Kb 2Kb
• BC specifies h = ho at r = R
This is the Thiem Equation
Steady Unconfined Radial Flow
Q
• Assumptions
r s aquifer, 2-D radial flow
ho h(r,0) = ho for all r
h
h(R,t) = ho for all t
• Darcy’s Law Q = -2rhKh/r • Using BC ho2 = - Q ln(R) + c
• Rearranging hh = - Q r K
2K r • Eliminating constant (c) gives
• Integrating h2 = - Q ln(r) + c ho2 – h2 = Q ln(r/R)
2 2K K
• BC specifies h = ho at r = R
This is the Thiem Equation
Thiem Equation Assumptions
• The equation for unconfined flow can be rearranged to give:
s = ho – h = Q ln(r/R)
2pK (ho+ h)/2
• Compare this with the confined equation:
s = ho – h = Q ln(r/R)
2pKb
• It is clear than the only difference is that the aquifer thickness b is
replaced by (ho + h)/2
• The implicit assumption in the derivation (2-D flow) implies that s is
small compared with ho and that the (ho + h)/2 does not deviate
significantly from ho
• This assumption may not be valid in the immediate vicinity of a
pumping well in an unconfined aquifer
Thiem Equation Applications
• The equation for unconfined flow can be rearranged to give:
K = Q ln(r/R)
 (ho2 - h2)
• Similarly with the confined equation:
K = Q ln(r/R)
2b (ho – h)
• The radius of influence R is hard to estimate but any two wells at
different radial distance can be used in the equations
K = Q ln(r2/r1) and K = Q ln(r2/r1)
 (h22 – h12) 2b (h2 – h1)
• This means that for a well producing at a steady rate (Q) with a
steady drawdown, any pair of observation points at different radial
distances can be used to estimate K
Specific Capacity
• For a confined well producing at a steady rate (Q) the specific capacity
is given by:
Q = 2Kb
sw ln(rw/R)
• This means that for a confined well producing at a steady rate (Q) the
specific capacity is constant.
• The equation for unconfined flow can be rearranged:

Q = K (ho + hw)
sw ln(rw/R)
• Writing hw = ho - sw gives:
Q = - K (sw + 2ho)
sw ln(rw/R)
Specific Capacity
• For an unconfined well producing at a steady rate (Q) the specific
capacity reduces with increasing drawdown. The maximum specific
capacity for an unconfined well is given by:
Q = 2Kho
sw ln(rw/R)
Unsteady Radial Confined Flow
Q • Assumptions
r s aquifer, 2-D radial flow
h ho h(r,0) = ho for all r
b h(,t) = ho for all t
• PDE 1  (rh ) = S h • The ultimate solution is:
r r r T t ho- h = Q  exp(-u) du
• Solution is more complex than 4T u u
steady-state
where the integral is called the
• Change the dependent variable exponential integral written as the
by letting u = r2S well function W(u)
4Tt
This is the Theis Equation
Theis Analysis
1. Overlay type-curve on data-curve keeping axes parallel

2. Select a point on the type-curve (any will do but [1,1] is
simplest)
3. Read off the corresponding co-ordinates on the data-curve
[td,sd]
4. For [1,1] on the type curve corresponding to [td,sd], T =
Q/4sd and S = 4Ttd/r2 = Qtd/r2sd
5. For the example, Q = 32 L/s or 0.032 m3/s; r = 120 m; td =
51 s and sd = 0.17 m
6. T = (0.032)/(12.56 x 0.17) = 0.015 m2/s = 1300 m2/d
7. S = (0.032 x 51)/(3.14 x 120 x 120 x 0.17) = 2.1 x 10-4
Cooper-Jacob
• Cooper and Jacob (1946) pointed out that the series expansion of the
exponential integral or W(u) is:
W(u) = – g - ln(u) + u - u2 + u3 - u4 + ..…
1.1! 2.2! 3.3! 4.4!
where g is Euler’s constant (0.5772)
• For u<< 1 , say u < 0.05 the series can be truncated:
W(u)  – ln(eg) - ln(u) = - ln(egu) = -ln(1.78u)
• Thus: s = ho - h = - Q ln(1.78u) = - Q ln(1.78r2S) = Q ln( 4Tt )
4pT 4pT 4Tt 4pT 1.78r 2S
s = ho - h = Q ln( 2.25Tt ) = 2.3 Q log( 2.25Tt )

4pT r 2S 4pT r 2S
• The Cooper-Jacob simplification expresses drawdown (s) as a linear

function of ln(t) or log(t).
Cooper-Jacob Analysis
1. Fit straight-line to data (excluding early and late times if

necessary):
– at early times the Cooper-Jacob approximation may not be
valid
– at late times boundaries may significantly influence drawdown
2. Determine intercept on the time axis for s=0
3. Determine drawdown increment (Ds) for one log-cycle
4. For straight-line fit, T = 2.3Q/4pDs and S = 2.25Tto/r2 =
2.3Qto/1.78pr2Ds
5. For the example, Q = 32 L/s or 0.032 m3/s; r = 120 m; to = 84 s and
Ds = 0.39 m
6. T = (2.3 x 0.032)/(12.56 x 0.39) = 0.015 m2/s = 1300 m2/d
7. S = (2.3 x 0.032 x 84)/(1.78 x 3.14 x 120 x 120 x 0.39) = 1.9 x 10-4
Theis-Cooper-Jacob Assumptions
Real aquifers rarely conform to the assumptions made for
Theis-Cooper-Jacob non-equilibrium analysis
• Isotropic, homogeneous, uniform thickness
• Fully penetrating well
• Laminar flow
• Flat potentiometric surface
• Infinite areal extent
• No recharge
The failure of some or all of these assumptions leads to “non-
ideal” behaviour and deviations from the Theis and Cooper-
Jacob analytical solutions for radial unsteady flow
Sources of Recharge
• Various sources of recharge may cause deviation from the
ideal Theis behaviour.
• Surface water: river, stream or lake boundaries may provide

a source of recharge, halting the expansion of the cone of
depression.
• Vertical seepage from an overlying aquifer, through an

intervening aquitard, as a result of vertical gradients created
by pumping, can also provide a source of recharge.
• Where the cone of depression extends over large areas,

leakage from aquitards may provide sufficient recharge.
Potential Flow Barriers
• Various flow barriers may cause deviation from the
ideal Theis behaviour.
• Fault truncations against low permeability aquitards.
• Lenticular pinchouts and lateral facies changes
associated with reduced permeability.
• Groundwater divides associated with scarp slopes.
• Spring lines with discharge captured by wells.
• Artificial barriers such as grout curtains and slurry
walls.
Casing Storage
• It has been known for many decades that early time data can
give erroneous results because of removal of water stored in
the well casing.
• When pumping begins, this water is removed and the
amount drawn from the aquifer is consequently reduced.
• The true aquifer response is masked until the casing storage
is exhausted.
• Analytical solutions accounting for casing storage were
developed by Papadopulos and Cooper (1967) and Ramey
et al (1973)
• Unfortunately, these solutions require prior knowledge of
well efficiencies and aquifer characteristics
Casing Storage
Schafer (1978) suggests that an estimate of the critical
Q time to exhaust casing storage can be made more easily:
tc = 3.75p(dc2 – dp2) / (Q/s) = 15 Va /Q
where tc is the critical time (d);
dc is the inside casing diameter (m);
s dp is the outside diameter of the rising main (m);
Q/s is the specific capacity of the well (m3/d/m)
dp Va is the volume of water removed from the
annulus between casing and rising
main.
dc
Note: It is safest to ignore data from pumped wells
earlier than time tc in wells in low-K
Distance-Drawdown
• Simultaneous drawdown data from at least three observation

wells, each at different radial distances, can be used to plot a
log(distance)-drawdown graph.
• The Cooper-Jacob equation, for fixed t, has the form:
s = 2.3 Q log( 2.25Tt ) = 2.3 Q log( 2.25Tt ) – 4.6Q log(r)

4pT r 2S 4pT S 4pT
• So the log(distance)-drawdown curve can be used to estimate
aquifer characteristics by measuring Ds for one log-cycle and
the ro intercept on the distance-axis.
T = 4.6Q and S = 2.25Tt

4pDs r o2
Aquifer Characteristics
• For the example: t = 0.35 days and Q = 1100 m3/d
T = 0.366 x 1100 / 3.8 = 106 m2/d
S = 2.25 x 106 x 0.35 / (126 x 126) = 5.3 x 10-3

• The estimates of T and S from log(time)-drawdown and
log(distance)-drawdown plots are independent of one
another and so are recommended as a check for consistency
in data derived from pump tests.
• Ideally 4 or 5 observation wells are needed for the distance-
drawdown graph and it is recommended that T and S are
computed for several different times.
Well Efficiency
• The efficiency of a pumped well can be evaluated using
distance-drawdown graphs.
• The distance-drawdown graph is extended to the outer
radius of the pumped well (including any filter pack) to
estimate the theoretical drawdown for a 100% efficient well.
• This analysis assumes the well is fully-penetrating and the
entire saturated thickness is screened.
• The theoretical drawdown (estimated) divided by the actual
well drawdown (observed) is a measure of well efficiency.
• A correction is necessary for unconfined wells to allow for
the reduction in saturated thickness as a result of drawdown.
Unconfined Well Correction
• The adjusted drawdown for an unconfined well is given

by:
sc = (1 - sa ) sa
2b
where b is the initial saturated thickness;
sa is the measured drawdown; and
sc is the corrected drawdown
• For example, if b = 20 m; sa = 6 m; then the corrected
drawdown sc = 0.85sa = 5.1 m
• If the drawdown is not corrected, the Jacob and Theis
analysis underestimates the true transmissivity under
saturated conditions by a factor of sc/ sa.
Causes of Well Inefficiency
• Factors contributing to well inefficiency (excess head loss)

fall into two groups:
• Design factors
• Insufficient open area of screen
• Poor distribution of open area
• Insufficient length of screen
• Improperly designed filter pack
• Construction factors
• Inadequate development, residual drilling fluids
• Improper placement of screen relative to aquifer interval
Radius of Influence
• The radius of influence of a well can be determined from a distance-
drawdown plot.
• For all practical purposes, a useful comparative index is the intercept of
the distance-drawdown graph on the distance axis.
• Radius of influence can be used as a guide for well spacing to avoid
interference.
• Since radius of influence depends on the balance between aquifer
recharge and well discharge, the radius may vary from year to year.
• For unconfined wells in productive aquifers, the radius of influence is
typically a few hundred metres.
• For confined wells may have a radius of influence extending several
kilometres.
Unconfined Aquifers
• Most analytical solutions assume isotropic, homogeneous, confined
aquifers or assume drawdowns are small for the unconfined case.
• There are three distinct parts to the time drawdown curve in an
unconfined aquifer:
• early time response follows Theis equation with the
confined “elastic” storage corresponding to storativity
(bSs)
• intermediate times respond as a leaky aquifer with
vertical flow in the vicinity of the pumped well with
storage release controlled by the aquifer Kh/Kv ratio
• late time response follows Theis equation with gravity
drainage providing storage corresponding to the specific
yield (Sy)
Delayed-Yield Response
• Unconfined response
uA uB is complex with theory

developed by Boulton,
Dagan, Steltsova,
Rushton and Neuman.
• Neuman (1975) defines a well function W(uA,uB,) where each
parameter corresponds to a different time phase:
• early-time response is controlled by uA = r2S/4Tt
• intermediate-times are controlled by = r2Kv/Khb2
• late-time response is controlled by uB = r2Sy/4Tt
• The Hantush leakage parameter (r/B) is closely related to 
• (r/B)2 = r2Kv’/Khbb’ where the Kv’ and b’ parameters refer to the leaky
bed. If these leaky-bed parameters become aquifer parameters (r/B)2 = 
Neuman Type Curves

10.0
0.002
0.01
0.04
0.25
1.0 1.0
W (uA,uB,)
4.0
0.1
0.0
1.E-01 1.E+00 1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06
1/u
• The Neuman type curves are fitted to data in a manner similar to that for
Theis curves. Higher values of  indicate more rapid gravity drainage.
Partial Penetration
• Partial penetration effects occur when the intake of the well is

less than the full thickness of the aquifer
Effects of Partial Penetration
• The flow is not strictly horizontal and radial.
• Flow-lines curve upwards and downwards as they approach
the intake and flow-paths are consequently longer.
• The convergence of flow-lines and the longer flow-paths
result in greater head-loss than predicted by the analytical
equations.
• For a given yield (Q), the drawdown of a partially
penetrating well is more than that for a fully penetrating
well.
• The analysis of the partially penetrating case is difficult but
Kozeny (1933) provides a practical method to estimate the
change in specific capacity (Q/s).
Q/s Reduction Factors
• Kozeny (1933) gives the following approximate reduction factor
to correct specific capacity (Q/s) for partial penetration effects:
F = L {1 + 7 cos(pL) ( r )}
b 2b 2L
where b is the total aquifer thickness (m);
r is the well radius (m); and
L is screen length (m).
• The equation is valid for L/b < 0.5 and L/r > 30
• For a 300 mm dia. well with an aquifer thickness of 30 m and a
screen length of 15 m, L/b = 0.5 and 2L/r = 200 the reduction
factor is:
F = 0.5 x {1 + 7 x 0.707 (1/200)} = 0.67
• Other factor are provided by Muskat (1937), Hantush (1964),

Huisman (1964), Neuman (1974) but they are harder to use.
Partial Penetration Alternative
• Multiple screened sections distributed over the entire saturated

thickness functions more efficiently for the same open area.
Screen Design
300 mm dia. well with 5 x 3 m
300 mm dia. well with solid sections alternating with
single screened interval of 5 x 3m screened sections, in an
15 m in aquifer of aquifer of thickness 30 m.
thickness 30 m. There effectively are five aquifers.
L/b = 0.5 and 2L/r = 200 L/b = 0.5 and 2L/r = 40
F = 0.5 x {1 + 7 x cos(0.5/2) F = 0.5 x {1 + 7 x cos(0.5p/2)(1/40)}
(1/200)} = 0.67 = 0.89
This is clearly a much more

efficient well completion.
Recovery Data
• When pumping is halted, water levels rise towards their pre-
pumping levels.
• The rate of recovery provides a second method for calculating
aquifer characteristics.
• Monitoring recovery heads is an important part of the well-
testing process.
• Observation well data (from multiple wells) is preferable to that
gathered from pumped wells.
• Pumped well recovery records are less useful but can be used in
a more limited way to provide information on aquifer properties.
Recovery Curve
2
Drawdown (m)
4
Drawdown 10 m
6
Recovery 10 m
8 Pumping
Stopped
10
12
-6 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72
Time (hrs)
The recovery curve on a linear scale appears as an inverted

image of the drawdown curve. The dotted line represent the
continuation of the drawdown curve.
Superposition
• The drawdown (s) for a well pumping at a constant rate (Q) for a period (t)
is given by:
s = ho - h = Q W(u) where u = r2S
4pT 4Tt
• The effects of well recovery can be calculated by adding the effects of a
pumping well to those of a recharge well using the superposition theorem.
• The drawdown (sr) for a well recharged at a constant rate (-Q) for a period
(t’ = t - tr) starting at time tr is given by:
sr = - Q W(u’) where u’ = r2S
4pT 4Tt’
• The total drawdown for t > tr is:
s’ = s + sr = Q (W(u) - W(u’))
4pT
Residual Drawdown and Recovery
• The total drawdown for t > tr is:
s’ = s + sr = Q (W(u) - W(u’))
4T
• The Cooper-Jacob approximation can be applied giving:
s’ = s + sr = Q (ln(2.25Tt) - ln(2.25Tt’))
4T r 2S r 2S
• Simplification gives the residual drawdown equation:
s’ = s + sr = Q ln(t)
4T t’
• The equation predicting the recovery is:
sr = - Q ln(2.25Tt’)
4T r 2S
For t > tr, the recovery sr is the difference between the observed
drawdown s’ and the extrapolated pumping drawdown (s).
Time-Recovery Analysis
• For a constant rate of pumping (Q), the recovery any time (t’) after
pumping stops:
T= Q = -Q = Q
4pD(s - s’) - 4pDsr 4pDsr
• For the example, sr = 4.6 m and Q = 1100 m3/d so:
T = 1100 / (12.56 x 4.6) = 19 m2/d
• The storage coefficient can be estimated for an observation well (r = 30
m) using:
S = 4Tto’
r2
• For the example, to’ = 0.12 and Q = 1100 m3/d so:
S = 4 x 19 x 0.12 / (24 x 30 x 30) = 4.3 x 10-4
• It is necessary to use an observation well for this calculation because
well bore storage effects render any calculation based on rw potentially
subject to huge errors.
Time-Residual Drawdown Analysis
• For a constant rate of pumping (Q), the recovery any time (t’)
after pumping stops:
T= Q
4pDs’
• For the example, Dsr = 5.2 m and Q = 1100 m3/d so:
T = 1100 / (12.56 x 5.2) = 17 m2/d
• Notice that the graph plots t/t’ so the points on the LHS
represent long recovery times and those on the RHS short
recovery times.
• The storage coefficient cannot be estimated for the residual
drawdown plot because the intercept t / t’  1 as t’  .
• This more obvious, remembering t’ = t - tr where tr is the
elapsed pumping time before recovery starts.
DST
• The drill stem test, used widely in
petroleum engineering, is a recovery test.
Drill • Packers are used to isolate the layers of
Stem
interest which has been flowing for some
Valve
time.
Packer
• Initially the bypass valve is open allowing
free circulation.
Perforated
Section
• When the bypass valve is closed, the
formation pressure is “shut-in” and begins
Packer
to recover towards the static value.
Gauge
• The Horner plot is a direct analogue of the
residual drawdown plot.
DST Analysis
• Recall that the final form of the recovery equation is:
ho - h = s’ = 2.3Q log(t)
4T t’
• For a DST, the pressure (rather than head) is measured
po - p = 2.3Q log(t)
4kb t’
• Remembering that p = h,T = Kb and K = k/
po
• The Horner-plot has an intercept po
when t / t’ = 1
p (kPa)
• This intercept is taken to be the static

p
formation pressure.
• K can be estimated from the gradient
of the graph: k = 2.3Q
100 10 1
t / t’ 4bp
Slug Test
• The recovery test in a borehole after withdrawal or
injection (or displacement) of a known volume of
water is called a slug test.
• The slug test is a rapid field method for estimation
of moderate to low K-values in a single well.
Displacer • The procedure is:
Displaced
• initial head is noted
Head • the slug is removed, added or displaced
instantaneously (displacement is best in this
respect)
• head recovery is monitored (usually with a
Initial
submerged pressure logging device)
Head
• typical head changes are 2-3 m in 25-50 mm
dia. piezometers so the volume of the slug is
typically only 1-10 litres
Slug Analysis
• ra is access tube internal radius
• rw is perforated section external radius
• L is length of perforated section
• ho is initial head, t = to
Tube or • h(t) is head after recovery time t
Casing • A is the tube or casing csa = pra2
• F is a shape factor = 2pL / ln(L/rw)
2ra • Analysis methods include:
• Hvorslev (1951)
• Cooper et al (1967)
The Cooper analysis considers storage but the Hvorslev
L analysis is more widely used.
• K = A ln (h) = ra2 ln(L) ln(h)
F(t - to) ho 2L(t - to) rw ho
2rw
Hvorslev Analysis
• K= ra2 ln(L) ln(h)
2L(t - to) rw ho 1.0
• Plot time against log (h/ho) 0.9
0.8
• Measure basic time lag To 0.7
Tube or 0.6
Casing when ln(h0/h) = 1 0.5
• K = ra2 ln (L)
h 0.4 To
2ra 2LTo rw ho
• Time lag To occurs when: h = 0.3
e-1ho = 0.37ho
• If To = 1000 secs for a 50 mm 0.2
L dia. x 1 m length Casagrande

piezometer with 38 mm dia
access tube K = 2 x 10-6 m/s 0.1
2rw Time, t - to
Bounded Aquifers
• Superposition was used to calculate well recovery by

adding the effects of a pumping and recharge well starting
at different times.
• Superposition can also be used to simulate the effects of
aquifer boundaries by adding wells at different positions.
• For boundaries, the wells that create the same effect as a
boundary are called image wells.
• This relatively simple application of superposition for
analysis of aquifer boundaries was for described by Ferris
(1959)
Image Wells
• Recharge boundaries at • Barrier boundaries at distance
distance (r) are simulated by (r) are simulated by a
a recharge image well at an pumping image well at an
equal distance (r) across the equal distance (r) across the
boundary. boundary.
r r r r
General Solution
The general solution for adding image
wells to a real pumping well can be
ri written:
rp
s = sp  si = Q [W(u)  W(ui)]
4pT
r r where up = rp2S and ui = ri2S
4Tt 4Tt
and rp,ri are the distances from the
pumping and image wells respectively.
• For a barrier boundary, for all points on the boundary rp = ri and the drawdown is
doubled.
• For a recharge boundary, for all points on the boundary rp = ri and the drawdown is
zero.
Specific Solutions
• Using the Cooper-Jacob approximation is only possible for large values
of to ensure that u < 0.05 for all r so the Theis well function is used:
s = Q/ 4T [W(u)  W(ri2u)] = Q [W(u)  W(u)
rp2 4T
• For the barrier boundary case: • For the recharge boundary case:
s = Q [W(u) - W(u)]
s = Q [W(u) + W(u)] 4T
4T where  = (ri/rp)2 and 0<<1
where  = (ri/rp)2 and 0<<1
Multiple Boundaries
• A recharge boundary and a • Two barrier boundaries at
barrier boundary at right angles right angles can be generated
can be generated by two pairs by superposition of an array
of pumping and recharge wells. of four pumping wells.
r2 r2
r1 r1
Parallel Boundaries
• A parallel recharge boundary and a barrier boundary (or any pattern

with parallel boundaries) requires an infinite array of image wells.
r1 r2
Boundary Location
• For an observation well at distance r1,

s
measure off the same drawdown (s), before
t1 and after the “dog leg” on a log(time) vs.
drawdown plot.
s
• Find the times t1 and t2.
t2
• Assuming that the “dog leg” is created by an
image well at distance r2 , if the drawdowns
are identical then W(u1) = W(u2) so u1 = u2.
• Thus: r12S/4Tt1 = r22S/4Tt2
So r12t2 = r22t1 and r2 = r1(t2 / t1)½
• The distance r2 the radial distance from the
observation point to the boundary.
• Repeating for additional observation wells
may help locate the boundary.
Pumping Wells
• The drawdown observed in a pumping well has two component
parts:
• aquifer loss
• drawdown due to laminar flow in the aquifer
• well loss
• drawdown due to turbulent flow in the immediate
vicinity of the well through the screen and/or gravel
pack
• Well loss is usually assumed to be proportional to the square of the
pumping rate:
sw = CQ2
Well Efficiency
• The total drawdown at a pumping well is given by:
st = s + sw = Q W(u) + CQ2 = BQ + CQ2
4T
• The ratio of the aquifer loss and total drawdown (s/st) is known as the well
efficiency.
s= W(u) = B .
st W(u) + 4TCQ B + CQ
• Mogg (1968) defines well efficiency at a fixed time (t = 24 hrs). Thus,
writing W(u) as the Cooper-Jacob approximation gives:
s= 1 = 1 .
st 1 + 4TCQ / [ln (2.25Tt /S) - 2 ln(rw)] 1 + CQ/B(rw)
• Written in this form it is clear that well efficiency reduces with pumping
rate (Q) and increases with well radius (rw), where B is inversely related to
well radius.
• The specific capacity is given by: Q = 1 .
st B + CQ
Step-Drawdown Test
• Step-drawdown tests are tests at
s1 different pumping rates (Q) designed
to determine well efficiency.
s2 • Normally pumping at each
successively greater rate Q1 < Q2 < Q3
< Q4 < Q5 takes place for 1-2 hours
Drawdown, s
s3
(t) and for 5 to 8 steps. The entire test
usually takes place in one day.
s4
• Equal pumping times (t) simplifies
the analysis.
• At the end of each step, the pumping
s5 rate (Q) and drawdown (s) is recorded.
Time, t
Step-Drawdown Test Analysis
• Step-drawdown tests are • The intercept of the graph at Q=0 is
analysed by plotting the B = W(u)/4pT and the slope is the
reciprocal of specific well loss coefficient, C.
capacity (s/Q) against the • B can also be obtained
pumping rate (Q). independently from a Theis or
Cooper-Jacob analysis of a pump
test.
s/Q (m/m3/d)
• For Q = 2700 m3/d and s = 33.3 m

C the B = 0.012 m/m3/d
• If C = 4 x 10-5, then CQ2 = 18.2 m
B
• The well efficiency is
33.3/(33.3+18.2) = 65%
Q (L/s)
Well Yield
Well yield Nom. pump dia. Opt. casing dia. Min. casing dia.
US gpm L/s m3/d in mm in mm in mm
< 100 <6.4 550 4 100 6 150 5 130
< 170 <11 950 5 130 8 200 6 150
< 350 <22 1900 6 150 10 250 8 200
< 700 <44 3800 8 200 12 300 10 250
< 1000 <64 5500 10 250 14 360 12 300
< 1800 <110 9800 12 300 16 410 14 360
< 3000 <190 16000 14 360 20 510 16 410
< 3800 <240 21000 16 410 24 610 20 510
< 6000 <380 33000 20 510 30 760 24 610
• The chart is used to select casing sizes for a particular yield. The main constraint is
pumping equipment.
• For example, if the well is designed to deliver 4,000 m3/d, the optimum casing dia. is 360
mm (2 nom. sizes > pump dia.) and the minimum 300 mm.
• The drilled well diameter would have to be 410 to 510 mm to provide at least a 50 mm
grout/cement annulus.
Pump Test Planning
• Pump tests will not produce satisfactory estimates of either aquifer
properties or well performance unless the data collection system is
carefully and QA/QC is addressed in the design.
• Several preliminary estimates are needed to design a successful test:
• Estimate the maximum drawdown at the pumped well
• Estimate the maximum pumping rate
• Evaluate the best method to measure the pumped volumes
• Plan discharge of pumped volumes distant from the well
• Estimate drawdowns at observation wells
• Simulate the test before it is conducted
• Measure all initial heads several times to ensure that steady-
conditions prevail
• Survey elevations of all well measurement reference points
Number of Observation Wells
• Number depends on test objectives and available

resources for test program.
• Single well can give aquifer characteristics (T and S).
Reliability of estimates increases with additional
observation points.
• Three wells at different distances are needed for time-
distance analysis
• No maximum number because anisotropy,
homogeneity, and boundaries can be deduced from
response
Pump Test Measurements
• The accuracy of drawdown data and the results of subsequent analysis
depends on:
• maintaining a constant pumping rate
• measuring drawdown at several (>2) observation wells at different radial
distances
• taking drawdowns at appropriate time intervals at least every min (1-15
mins); (every 5 mins) 15-60 mins; (every 30 mins) 1-5 hrs; (every 60
mins) 5-12 hrs; (every 8 hrs) >12 hrs
• measuring barometric pressure, stream levels, tidal oscillations as
necessary over the test period
• measuring both pumping and recovery data
• continuing tests for no less than 24 hours for a confined aquifers and 72
hours for unconfined aquifers in constant rate tests
• collecting data over a 24 hour period for 5 or 6 pumping rates for step-
drawdown tests
Measuring Pumping Rates
• Control of pumping is normally required as head and pump rpm
changes. Frequent flow rate measurements are needed to maintain
constant rate.
• Lower rates
• periodic measurements of time to fill a container of known
volume
• “v” notch weir - measure head (sensitive at low flows)
• Higher rates
• impellor driven water meter - measure velocity (insensitive)
• circular orifice weir - measure head v=(2gh)½
• rectangular notch weir - measure head
• free-flow Parshall flume (drop in floor) - measure head
• cutthroat flume (flat floor) – measure head
Measuring Drawdown
• Pumped wells
• heads are hard to measure due to turbulence and pulsing.
• data cannot reliably estimate storage.
• Observation wells
• smallest possible diameter involves least time lag
• screens usually 1-2 m; longer is better but not critical should be at
same depth as centre of production section
• if too close (< 3 to 5 x aquifer thickness) can be strongly influenced
by anisotropy (stratification)
• if too far away (>200 m unconfined) Dh(t) increases with time so a
longer test is required – boundary and other effects can swamp
aquifer response
Drawdown Instrumentation
• Dipmeters
• let cable hang to remove kinks
• rely on light or buzzer, have spare batteries
• Steel tapes
• read wetted part for water level (chalking helps)
• hard to use where high-frequency readings are needed
• Pressure gauges
• measure head above reference point
– need drawdown estimates to set gauge depth
• Pressure tranducers/data loggers
– hang in well and record at predetermined interval
• can be rented (cheaply) for tests
• remote sites (no personnel) and closest wells (frequency)
Ground Water Flow

and
Well Mechanics
Steady One-Dimensional Flow
• For ground water flow in the x-direction in a confined aquifer,

the governing equation becomes:
d2h/dx2 = 0
and has the solution
h = -vx/K + h0
where h = 0 and dh/dx = -v/K, according to Darcy’s law.
This states that head varies linearly with flow in the x-direction.
Water Supply Wells
Steady Radial Flow to a Well-Confined
Cone of Depression
Q
s = drawdown
r
h
• In a confined aquifer, the drawdown curve or cone of

depression varies with distance from a pumping well.
• For horizontal flow, Q at any radius r equals, from
Darcy’s law,
Q = -2πrbK dh/dr
for steady radial flow to
a well where Q,b,K are const
• Integrating after separation of variables, with
h = hw at r = rw at the well, yields Thiem Eqn
Q = 2πKb[(h-hw)/(ln(r/rw ))]
Note, h increases
indefinitely with
increasing r, yet
the maximum
head is h0.
• Near the well, transmissivity, T, may be estimated by

observing heads h1 and h2 at two adjacent observation
wells located at r1 and r2, respectively, from the
pumping well
T = Kb = Q ln(r2 / r1)
2π(h2 - h1)
Steady Radial Flow to a Well-Unconfined
Steady Radial Flow to a Well-Unconfined
• Using Dupuit’s assumptions and applying Darcy’s law for radial flow in an
unconfined, homogeneous, isotropic, and horizontal aquifer yields:
Q = -2πKh dh/dr
integrating,
Q = πK[(h22 - h12)/ln(r2/ r1)
solving for K,
K = [Q/π(h22 - h12)]ln (r2/ r1)
where heads h1 and h2 are observed at adjacent wells located distances r1 and
r2 from the pumping well respectively.
Multiple-Well Systems
• For multiple wells with drawdowns that overlap, the

principle of superposition may be used for governing
flows:
Drawdown at any point in the area of

influence of several pumping wells is equal to the
sum of drawdowns from each well in a confined
aquifer
Injection-Pumping Pair of Wells
Pump Inject
5306-GROUNDWATER DEVELOPMENT Multiple-Well Systems
The same principle

applies for well
flow near a
boundary
• Example:
pumping near a
fixed head
stream
5306-GROUNDWATER DEVELOPMENT Multiple-Well Systems
• Another example:
well pumping near
an impermeable
boundary
• The previously mentioned principles also apply for well

flow near a boundary
• Image wells placed on the other side of the boundary at
a distance xw can be used to represent the equivalent
hydraulic condition
• The use of image wells allows an aquifer of finite
extent to be transformed into an infinite aquifer so
that closed-form solution methods can be applied
•A flow net for a pumping

well and a recharging image
well
-indicates a line of
constant head between
the two wells
Three-Wells Pumping
Total Drawdown at A is sum of drawdowns from each well
Q2
Q1 A r
Q3
The steady-state drawdown s'

at any point (x,y) is given by:
(x + xw)2 + (y - yw)2
s’ = (Q/4πT)ln
(x - xw)2 + (y - yw)2
where (±xw,yw) are the locations
of the recharge and discharge
wells. For this case, yw= 0.
The steady-state drawdown s' at any point (x,y) is given by
s’ = (Q/4πT)[ ln {(x + xw)2 + y2} – ln {(x – xw)2 + y2} ]
where the positive term is for the pumping well and the negative
term is for the injection well. In terms of head,
h = (Q/4πT)[ ln {(x – xw)2 + y2} – ln {(x + xw)2 + y2 }] + H
Where H is the background head value before pumping.

Note how the signs reverse since s’ = H – h
Example
A screened, cased well t (sec) yt(m)

penetrates a confined
aquifer. The casing radius is 1 0.24
5 cm and the screen is 1 m 2 0.19
long. A gravel pack 2.5 cm 3 0.16
wide surrounds the well and 4 0.13
a slug of water is injected
that raises the water level by 6 0.07
0.28 m. The change in water 9 0.03
level with time is as listed in 13 0.013
the following table. Given 19 0.005
that Re is 10 cm, calculate K
20 0.002
for the aquifer.
40 0.001
Solution
Data for y vs. t are plotted on

semi-log paper as shown.
The straight line from y0 =
0.28 m to yt = 0.001 m
covers 2.4 log cycles. The
time increment between the
two points is 24 seconds. To
convert the log cycles to
natural log, a factor of 2.3 is
used. Thus, 1/t ln(y0/yt) = 2.3
x 2.4/2.4 = 0.23.
Solution
Using this value (0.23) in the Bouwer and Rice

equation gives:
K = [(5 cm)2 ln(10 cm/7.5 cm)/(2 x 100 cm)](0.23 sec-1)

and,
K = 8.27 x 10-3 cm/s
Radial Flow in a Leaky Aquifer
• Leaky aquifers are complex
because when they are pumped,
water is withdrawn from both
the lower aquifer and from the
saturated portion of the
overlying aquitard.
• By creating a lowered
piezometric surface below the
water table, ground water can
migrate vertically downward
and than move horizontally to
the well

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5306-GROUNDWATER DEVELOPMENT

• A water well is a hydraulic structure that is designed and

• Pump tests allow estimation of transmission and storage

• The equation for unconfined flow can be rearranged:

1. Overlay type-curve on data-curve keeping axes parallel

s = ho - h = Q ln( 2.25Tt ) = 2.3 Q log( 2.25Tt )

• The Cooper-Jacob simplification expresses drawdown (s) as a linear

1. Fit straight-line to data (excluding early and late times if

• Surface water: river, stream or lake boundaries may provide

• Vertical seepage from an overlying aquifer, through an

• Where the cone of depression extends over large areas,

• Simultaneous drawdown data from at least three observation

s = 2.3 Q log( 2.25Tt ) = 2.3 Q log( 2.25Tt ) – 4.6Q log(r)

T = 4.6Q and S = 2.25Tt

T = 0.366 x 1100 / 3.8 = 106 m2/d

S = 2.25 x 106 x 0.35 / (126 x 126) = 5.3 x 10-3

• The adjusted drawdown for an unconfined well is given

• Factors contributing to well inefficiency (excess head loss)

• Partial penetration effects occur when the intake of the well is

• Other factor are provided by Muskat (1937), Hantush (1964),

• Multiple screened sections distributed over the entire saturated

This is clearly a much more

The recovery curve on a linear scale appears as an inverted

• This intercept is taken to be the static

L dia. x 1 m length Casagrande

• Superposition was used to calculate well recovery by

• A parallel recharge boundary and a barrier boundary (or any pattern

• For an observation well at distance r1,

• For Q = 2700 m3/d and s = 33.3 m

• Number depends on test objectives and available

Ground Water Flow

• For ground water flow in the x-direction in a confined aquifer,

• In a confined aquifer, the drawdown curve or cone of

• Near the well, transmissivity, T, may be estimated by

• For multiple wells with drawdowns that overlap, the

Drawdown at any point in the area of

The same principle

• The previously mentioned principles also apply for well

•A flow net for a pumping

Total Drawdown at A is sum of drawdowns from each well

The steady-state drawdown s'

The steady-state drawdown s' at any point (x,y) is given by

s’ = (Q/4πT)[ ln {(x + xw)2 + y2} – ln {(x – xw)2 + y2} ]

Where H is the background head value before pumping.

A screened, cased well t (sec) yt(m)

Data for y vs. t are plotted on

Using this value (0.23) in the Bouwer and Rice

K = [(5 cm)2 ln(10 cm/7.5 cm)/(2 x 100 cm)](0.23 sec-1)

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