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    Discrete Mathematics: Chapter 1: The Foundations: Logic and Proofs Section 1.4: Predicates and Quantifiers

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    Ahmed Hussain
    This document discusses predicates and quantifiers in predicate logic. It begins by explaining that predicate logic can express statements involving variables and relationships between objects in a way that propositional logic cannot. It then defines predicates as the properties or qualities described in a statement, with variables as the subjects. The document goes on to explain universal and existential quantifiers. The universal quantifier expresses that a property is true for all variables, while the existential quantifier expresses that a property is true for some variable. It provides examples and discusses restricting the domain, order of quantifiers, negating quantified statements, and translating English statements to logical expressions using predicates and quantifiers.

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    Discrete Mathematics: Chapter 1: The Foundations: Logic and Proofs Section 1.4: Predicates and Quantifiers

    Uploaded by

    Ahmed Hussain
    80 views29 pages
    This document discusses predicates and quantifiers in predicate logic. It begins by explaining that predicate logic can express statements involving variables and relationships between objects in a way that propositional logic cannot. It then defines predicates as the properties or qualities described in a statement, with variables as the subjects. The document goes on to explain universal and existential quantifiers. The universal quantifier expresses that a property is true for all variables, while the existential quantifier expresses that a property is true for some variable. It provides examples and discusses restricting the domain, order of quantifiers, negating quantified statements, and translating English statements to logical expressions using predicates and quantifiers.

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    DM Chapter1.4

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    This document discusses predicates and quantifiers in predicate logic. It begins by explaining that predicate logic can express statements involving variables and relationships between objects in a way that propositional logic cannot. It then defines predicates as the properties or qualities described in a statement, with variables as the subjects. The document goes on to explain universal and existential quantifiers. The universal quantifier expresses that a property is true for all variables, while the existential quantifier expresses that a property is true for some variable. It provides examples and discusses restricting the domain, order of quantifiers, negating quantified statements, and translating English statements to logical expressions using predicates and quantifiers.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pptx, pdf, or txt
    80 views29 pages

    Discrete Mathematics: Chapter 1: The Foundations: Logic and Proofs Section 1.4: Predicates and Quantifiers

    Uploaded by

    Ahmed Hussain
    This document discusses predicates and quantifiers in predicate logic. It begins by explaining that predicate logic can express statements involving variables and relationships between objects in a way that propositional logic cannot. It then defines predicates as the properties or qualities described in a statement, with variables as the subjects. The document goes on to explain universal and existential quantifiers. The universal quantifier expresses that a property is true for all variables, while the existential quantifier expresses that a property is true for some variable. It provides examples and discusses restricting the domain, order of quantifiers, negating quantified statements, and translating English statements to logical expressions using predicates and quantifiers.

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    Instructor:

    Discrete Mathematics  Dr Ghulam Mustafa

    Chapter 1: The Foundations: Logic and Proofs


    Section 1.4 : Predicates and Quantifiers 
    Introduction
    • Propositional logic, cannot adequately express the
    meaning of all statements in mathematics and in
    natural language
    • Example:
    “Every computer connected to the university network is
    functioning properly.”
    No rules of propositional logic allow us to conclude the
    truth of the statement
    “MATH3 is functioning properly,”
    Predicate Logic

    • We will see how predicate logic can be used


    to express the meaning of a wide range of
    statements in mathematics and computer
    science in ways that permit us to reason and
    explore relationships between objects.
    Predicates 

    • In mathematics arguments, we will often see


    sentences containing variables, such as: 
    • x > 0 
    • x = y + 3 
    • Computer x is functioning properly 
    • For each sentence, we call 
    • the variables as the subject of the sentence 
    • the other part, which describes the property of the
    variables, as the predicate of the sentence 
    Predicates 

    • Take x > 0 as an example 


    • x : the subject 
    • > 0: the predicate 
    • Once the value of x is assigned, the above
    sentence becomes a proposition and has a truth
    value 
    • We can denote it as some function P(x) of x 
    • P is called a propositional function 
    Predicates 

    • Example 1: 
    Let P(x ) denote the sentence “x > 0”. 
    What are the truth values of P(0) and P(1)? 
    • Example 2: 
    Let Q(x, y ) denote the sentence “x = y + 3”. 
    What are the truth values of Q(1,2) and
    Q(3,0)? 
    Quantifiers 

    • In English, the words all, some, many, none, few


    are used to express some property (predicate) is
    true over a range of subjects 
    • These words are called quantifiers 
    • In mathematics, two important quantifiers are
    commonly used to create a proposition from a
    propositional function: 
    universal quantifier and existential quantifier 
    Universal Quantifier 

    ••  Many
    mathematical statements say that a
    property is true for all values of a variable,
    when values are chosen from some domain 
    • Examples: 
    • z(z + 1)(z + 2) is divisible by 6 for all integer z 
    • is rational for all rational number q 
    • > 0 for all positive real number r 
    • Important Note: Domain needs to be specified! 
    Universal Quantifier 

    • Universal Quantifier 
    The universal quantification of P(x) is the
    proposition 
    “P(x) for all values of x in the domain.” 
    The notation ∀x P(x) represents the above
    proposition. 
    A value of x making the proposition false is called a
    counter-example. 
    Universal Quantifier 

    ••  If
    all values in the domain can be listed, say , ,
    …, , then ∀ x P(x ) is the same as 
    P() ⌃ P() ⌃ … ⌃ P() 
    • Example: 
    What is the truth value of ∀ x (x ≤ 10 ) when the
    domain consists of all positive integers not
    exceeding 3? 
    What is the truth value of P(1) ⌃ P(2) ⌃ P(3)? 
    Test Your Understanding 

    ••  What is the truth value of 


    ∀ x ( ≥ x ) 

    • if the domain consists of all real numbers? 


    • if the domain consists of all integers? 
    Test Your Understanding (Solution) 

    • False,
      if the domain consists of all real numbers. In particular,
    the case 
    x = 0.5 
    is a counter-example. 

    • True, if the domain consists of all integers. To see this, we notice


    the following equivalences: 
    ≥ x ↔x (x – 1) ≥ 0 ↔x ≤ 0 or x ≥ 1 
    Thus, ≥ x cannot be false, since there are no integers x with 0 < x
    < 1. 
    Existential Quantifier 

    •• Many
      mathematical statements say that a
    property is true for some value of a variable,
    when values are chosen from some domain 
    • Examples: 
    • + 1 is a prime for some non-negative integer z 
    • is rational for some irrational numbers r and s 
    • Important Note: Domain needs to be specified! 
    Existential Quantifier 

    • Existential Quantifier 
    • The existential quantification of P(x) is the
    proposition 
    “P(x) for some value of x in the domain.” 
    The notation ∃x P(x) represents the above
    proposition. 
    The proposition is false if and only if P(x) is
    false for all values of x. 
    Existential Quantifier 

    •• If
     all values in the domain can be listed, say , , …, ,
    then ∃ x P(x ) is the same as 
    P() v P() v … v P() 

    • Example: 

    What is the truth value of ∃ x (x ≤ 0 ) when the domain


    consists of all positive integers not exceeding 3? 
    What is the truth value of P(1) v P(2) v P(3)? 
    Test Your Understanding 

    ••  What is the truth value of 


    ∃ z ( ≥ 10 ) 

    • if the domain consists of all positive


    integers not exceeding 3? 
    • if the domain consists of all integers not
    exceeding 3? 
    Quantifiers

    Quantifiers
    Statement When True? When False?
    ∀x P(x) P(x) is true for every x. There is an x for which P(x) is
    false.
    ∃x P(x) There is an x for which P(x) is P(x) is false for every x.
    true.
    Quantifiers with Restricted Domain 

    ••  Sometimes,we want to simplify the writing


    by using short-hand notation 
    • Assuming the domain consists of all
    integers, guess what does each of the
    following mean? 
    • ∀ x < 0 ( > 0 ) 
    • ∃ z > 0 ( = 10 ) 
    Quantifiers with Restricted Domain 

    •∀
      x < 0 ( > 0 ) means 
    “For every x in the domain with x < 0, > 0.” 
    That is, it states “The square of a negative integer is positive.”
    The proposition is the same as: 
    ∀ x (x < 0 → > 0 ) 

    • ∃ z > 0 ( = 10 ) means 
    “There is some z in the domain with z > 0, = 10.” 
    That is, it states “There is a positive square root of 2.”
    The proposition is the same as: 
    ∃ z (z > 0 ^ = 10 ) 
    Precedence of Quantifiers

    • The quantifiers ∀ and ∃ have higher precedence than


    all logical operators
    • For Example:
    • ∀xP(x) ∨ Q(x) is the disjunction of ∀xP(x) and Q(x).
    In other words,
    • it means (∀xP(x)) ∨ Q(x) rather than ∀x(P(x) ∨ Q(x)).
    Binding Variables 

    • If there is a quantifier used on a variable x, we


    say the variable is bound. Else it is free. 
    Ex: In ∃x (x + y = 1 ) , x is bound and y is free 

    • If all variables in a propositional function are


    bound, the function becomes a proposition 
    Ex: ∀ y ∃x (x + y = 1 ) is a proposition 
    Multiple Quantifiers 

    • In the last example, we have a proposition 


    ∀y ∃x (x + y = 1 ) 
    with two quantifiers, where 
    ∀ y is applied to ∃x (x + y = 1 ), and 
    ∃x is applied to x + y = 1 
    • The part of the logical expression where a
    quantifier is applied is called the scope of that
    quantifier 
    The Order of Quantifiers 
    • Order in which quantifiers appear is important 
    • Example: 
    Suppose that the domain for both x and y are
    integers. What are the truth values of the
    following? 

    1. ∀ y ∃ x (x + y = 1 ) 
    2. ∃ x ∀y (x + y = 1 ) 
    The Order of Quantifiers 

    • Two special cases where the order of quantifiers


    is not important are: 
    1.All quantifiers are universal quantifiers 
    2.All quantifiers are existential quantifiers 
    • Example: 
    ∃ x ∃ y (x + y = 1 ) 
    means the same as 
    ∃ y ∃ x (x + y = 1 ) 
    Negating Quantified Expressions
    • “Every student in your class has taken a course in calculus.”
    ∀xP(x)
    where P(x) is the statement “x has taken a course in calculus”
    and the domain consists of the students in your class.
    • The negation of this statement is
    • “It is not the case that every student in your class has taken a course in calculus.”
    This is equivalent to
    • “There is a student in your class who has not taken a course in calculus.”
    ∃x⌝ P(x).
    • This example illustrates the equivalence ⌝∀xP(x) ≡ ∃x⌝ P(x).
    Negating Quantified Expressions
    • “There is a student in this class who has taken a course in
    calculus.” This is the existential quantification ∃xQ(x),
    where Q(x) is the statement “x has taken a course in calculus.”
    The negation of this statement is the proposition
    “It is not the case that there is a student in this class who has taken
    a course in calculus.”
    This is equivalent to
    • “Every student in this class has not taken calculus,” ∀x⌝ Q(x).
    • This example illustrates the equivalence
    • ⌝ ∃xQ(x) ≡ ∀x ⌝ Q(x).
    Logical Equivalences 
    • De Morgan’s Laws for Quantifiers
    1. ¬ ∃ x P(x ) ≡ ∀ x ¬ P(x ) 
    2. ¬ ∀ x P(x ) ≡ ∃ x ¬ P(x ) 
    De Morgan’s Laws for Quantifiers
    Negation Equivalent Statement When Is Negation True? When False?
    ¬ ∃ x P(x ) ∀ x ¬ P(x ) For every x, P(x) is There is an x for which
    false P(x) is true
    ¬ ∀ x P(x ) ∃ x ¬ P(x )  There is an x for which P(x) is true for every x.
    P(x) is false
    Applications: English Translation 
    • How to translate the following sentence 
    “Every student in this class has studied Calculus.” 
    into a logical expression, if 
    C(x ) denotes “x has studied Calculus”, and the domain
    of x is all students in this class? ∀xC(x)
    • What if the domain of x consists of all people?
    • “For every person x, if person x is a student in this class
    then x has studied calculus.”
    • If S(x) represents the statement that person x is in this class, we see that our
    statement can be expressed as ∀x(S(x) → C(x)).
    Applications: English Translation 

    • How to translate the following sentences 


    1.“All lions are fierce.” 
    2.“Some lion does not drink coffee.” 
    3.“Some fierce creatures do not drink coffee.” 
    into logical expressions, if 
    P(x ) := “x is a lion”, Q(x ) := “x is fierce”, 
    R(x ) := “x drinks coffee”,  ∀x(P(x) → Q(x)).
    and the domain of x consists of all creatures?  ∃x(P(x) ∧⌝ R(x)).
    ∃x(Q(x) ∧⌝ R(x)).

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