Chapter VI

Thinking, Problem solving and Language

 cognitive psychology
“The branch of psychology that focuses on the study of
higher mental processes, including thinking,
language, memory, problem solving, knowing,
reasoning, judging, and decision making.”

Cognitive psychology centers on three major topics:

 thinking and reasoning,

 problem solving and creativity

 language.
 Thinking and Reasoning
What are you thinking about at this moment?
The mere ability to pose such a question underscores the
distinctive nature of the human ability to think
THINKING:

“thinking is the manipulation of mental representations of information.

A representation may take the form of a word, a visual image, a
sound, or data in any other sensory modality stores in memory”
We begin by considering our use of mental images and
concepts, the building blocks of thought.
 Building blocks:
i. Mental Images: Examining the Mind’s Eye
 Mental images are representations in the mind of an object or
event. They are not just visual representations; our ability to “hear”
a tune in our heads also relies on a mental image. In fact, every
sensory modality may produce corresponding mental images
(Kosslyn, 2005; De Beni, Pazzaglia, & Gardini, 2007; Gardini et al.,
2009)
 Research has found that our mental images have many of the properties of the
actual stimuli they represent. For example, it takes the mind longer to scan
mental images of large objects than small ones
 Some experts see the production of mental images as a way to improve
various skills. For instance, many athletes use mental imagery in their
training. Basketball
2. Concepts: Categorizing the World
“Concepts are mental groupings of similar objects, events, or people. Concepts
enable us to organize complex phenomena into simpler, and therefore more
easily usable, cognitive categories” (Goldstone & Kersten, 2003; Murphy,
2005; Connolly, 2007).
Concepts help us classify newly encountered objects on the basis of our past
experience
 cognitive psychologists first studied concepts, they focused on those that were
clearly defined by a unique set of properties or features.
For example, an equilateral triangle is a closed shape that has three sides of
equal length. If an object has these characteristics, it is an equilateral triangle;
if it does not, it is not an equilateral triangle.

Ambiguous concepts, we usually think in terms of examples called

Prototypes .
Prototypes are typical, highly representative examples of a concept that
correspond to our mental image or best example of the concept. For instance,
although a robin and an ostrich
It is one of the best forms of controlled thinking consciously

towards the solution of a problem. It is realistic in the sense that

the solution is sought always in reference to the reality of the
situation. We can solve many problems in our day-dreams,
dreams and imaginations but they are unrealistic solutions.
As Sherman defined, “reasoning is a process of thinking

during which the individual is aware of a problem identifies,

evaluates, and decides upon a solution”.
Types of Reasoning:
Reasoning may be classified into two types.
1. Inductive reasoning:
It is a specialized thinking aimed at the discovery or construction of
a generalized principle by making use of particular cases, special
examples and identifying of elements or relations.
For example, Mohan is mortal, Radha is mortal, Karim is mortal;
therefore, all human beings are mortal.
2. Deductive reasoning:
It is the ability to draw some logical conclusions from known
statement or evidences. Here one starts with already known or
established generalized statement or principle and applies it to
specific cases. For example, all human beings are mortal you are a
human being, therefore, you are mortal.
Problem Solving
• Problem solving is the act of defining a problem; determining
the cause of the problem; identifying, prioritizing, and selecting
alternatives for a solution; and implementing a solution.
The problem-solving process.

Problems are at the center of what many people do at work every

day. Whether you're solving a problem for a client (internal or
external), supporting those who are solving problems, or
discovering new problems to solve, the problems you face can be
large or small, simple or complex, and easy or difficult.
 The key to a good problem definition is ensuring that you deal with
the real problem – not its symptoms. For example, if performance in
your department is substandard, you might think the problem is with
the individuals submitting work. However, if you look a bit deeper,
the real issue might be a lack of training, or an unreasonable
workload.
 Kinds of Problems:
Arrangement: Requiring the rearrangement of elements to
satisfy a criteria. Can do many things but not all will be correct.
Like jigsaw puzzles.
Inducing Structure: Determine relationship between
elements and form a new relationship. Have to consider shape
and size of elements. Predict what comes next by clues
provided. Like what comes next in a pattern?
Transformation: Has a present state, a goal and a
method to solve problem. Like an algebra question.
If solution is clear, then success is obvious.
Difficulties in problem solving:
Functional Fixedness: The tendency to think of
an object only in terms of its typical use. Like a
book is for reading, chair’s for sitting.
It is a part of “mental set” the tendency for
old patterns of problem solving to persist.
Confirmation bias: Stick with evidence that
supports our initial belief and ignore contradictory
evidence. Can occur due to need of extra
research.
Creativity: creative people are better problem-
solvers. They are divergent thinkers (as
opposed to convergent thinkers) – who find
unusual but appropriate solutions to problems,
that aren’t based on logic or knowledge.
 Language
What is language?
How does language develop?
Language:
The communication of information through
symbols arranged according to systematic rules.
 A cognitive ability central to communication.
 Closely linked to the way in which we think about and
understand the world.
 Without language, our ability to transmit
information, acquire knowledge, and cooperate with
others would become difficult
 Elements of Language
 Grammar is the system of rules that determine how our thoughts
can
be expressed.
 It deals with three major components of language: phonology,
syntax, and semantics.
1. Phonology is the study of phonemes, the smallest basic units of
speech that affect meaning, and of the way we use those sounds
to form words and produce meaning.
2. Syntax The ways in which words and phrases can be
combined to form sentences. For example, “TV down
the
turn” is not a meaningful sequence, whereas “Turn down
the
TV” is.
 Another example is the changes in meaning caused by the
 3. Semantics: The rules governing the meaning of words and
sentences.
 Semantic rules allow us to use words to convey the subtle changes
in meaning. For example, “The truck hit Laura” versus “Laura was
hit by a truck”
Language Development
 The first step of the development of language is Babbling
which occurs from the age of 3 months - 1 year. Even deaf
children display their own form of babbling.
 After the age of 6 -8 months, that ability begins to decline.
Infants begin to “specialize” in the language to which they are
exposed as neurons in their brains reorganize to respond to
the particular phonemes infants routinely hear.
 After 1 year of age, actual word formation begins.
 In English, these are typically short words that start with a
consonant sound such as b, d, m, p, and t —this helps
explain why mama and dada are so often among babies’ first
words.
 Language comprehension precedes language production.
 Then they start producing two-word combinations, the
building blocks of sentences, and sharply increase the
number of different words they are able to use.
Language Development
 By age 5, acquisition of language rules is relatively complete.

 Some theorists argue that a critical period exists for language

development early in life in which a child is particularly sensitive to
language cues and most easily acquires language.
 Language Acquisition
 Learning-theory approach :The theory states that
language acquisition follows the principles of
reinforcement and conditioning.
 The more that parents speak to their young children, the more
proficient the children become in language use.
 Nativist approach: The theory that a genetically
determined, innate mechanism directs language
development.
 According to his nativist approach to language, all the world’s
languages share a common underlying structure called a
universal grammar introduced by Noam Chomsky.
 Chomsky suggested that the human brain has a neural system, the
language-acquisition device that not only lets us understand the structure
language provides, but also gives us strategies and techniques for learning
the unique characteristics of our native language
 However, evidence collected by neuroscientists suggests that the ability to
use language, is tied to specific neurological developments.

 For instance, learning theorists contend that the apparent ability of

certain animals, such as chimpanzees, to learn the fundamentals of human
language contradicts the innate linguistic capability view.
 Interactionist Approach suggests that language development is produced
through a combination of genetically determined predispositions and
environmental circumstances that help teach language.
 It says that the brain’s hardwired language-acquisition device provides the
hardware for our acquisition of language, whereas the exposure to language
in our environment that learning theorists observe allows us to develop the
appropriate software.
 Influence of language on thinking
Linguistic-relativity hypothesis
The notion that language shapes and may determine the way people
in a particular culture perceive and understand the world.
 Language provides us with categories that we use to construct our
view of people and events in the world around us.
 Consequently, language shapes and produces thought.
Thought produces language.
 Most recent research refutes the linguistic-relativity hypothesis
and suggests, instead, that thinking produces language.
 Still, the linguistic-relativity hypothesis has not been entirely
discarded. A newer version of the hypothesis suggests that speech
patterns may influence certain aspects of thinking.
 In short, although research does not support the
linguistic- relativity hypothesis that language causes
thought, it is clear that language influences how we think.
And, of course, it certainly is the case that thought
influences language, suggesting that language and
thinking interact in complex ways

Most evidence suggests that although language does not

determine thought, it does affect the way people store
information in memory and how well they can retrieve it.
 Do animals use language?
 The degree to which language is a uniquely human skill remains an open
question.

 Psychologists, have been able to teach chimps to communicate at surprisingly

high levels. For instance, after four years of training, a chimp named Washoe
learned to make signs for 132 words and combine those signs into simple
sentences. Even more impressively, Kanzi, a chimpanzee, has linguistic skills that
some psychologists claim are close to those of a 2-year-old human being.
Kanzi’s trainers suggest that he can create grammatically sophisticated sentences
and can even invent new rules of syntax
 The language such animals use still lacks the grammar and the complex
constructions of human language. Instead, it is maintained that the chimps are
displaying a skill no different from that of a dog that learns to lie down on command
to get a reward.
 Furthermore, we lack firm evidence that animals can recognize and respond to
the mental states of others of their species, an important aspect of human
communication.
Bilingualism
 With a bilingual approach, students learn some
subjects in their native language while simultaneously
learning English.
 People who speak more than one language may have
a cognitive advantage over those who speak only
one.
 Bilingual speakers show more cognitive flexibility, may
understand concepts more easily than those who
speak only one language.
 They have more linguistic tools for thinking because
of their multiple-language abilities. In turn, this makes
them more creative and flexible in solving problems

 In addition, brain scans show that people who speak

multiple languages have distinct patterns of brain
activity according to the language that they are using.
Bilingualism: A matter of Biculturism
Biculturism: Being a member of two cultures
and its psychological impact.
Some psychologists argue that society
should promote an alternation model of
bicultural competence.
Such a model supports members of a culture
in their efforts to maintain their original cultural
identity as well as in their integration into the
adopted culture.
In this view, a person can belong to two cultures
and have two cultural identities without having to
choose between them.