Chapter 2 Metals

Metals
CHAPTER TWO
Metal
Metal is classified as:

1.Ferrous metal
 (Iron as main constituent)
e.g. cast iron, wrought iron, steel
2.Non ferrous metal
 (Iron is not the main constituent
e.g. copper, aluminum, zinc, tin
Cont…
 Metals in general are not appropriate for low cost
construction, especially in developing countries
- Expensive
- Usually imported
- Usually require special tools and equipments
 Very small percentage of buildings are constructed without
the use of metals (Nails, hinges, roofing sheet,
reinforcement, etc.)
Production of ferrous metal
Pig iron Production
 Iron ore is reduced to pig iron in a blast
furnace. Iron ore is combined with coke,
and limestone. Hot air are forced through
the material to ignite the coke and melt the
iron ore. The impurities in their on are
absorbed by the limestone and forms
blast furnace slag. The molten iron(with
and excess carbon) collects at the bottom
of the furnace.
Pig iron content:
 High carbon content: 4-5%. silicon: 2%,
manganese: 1%,sulfur: 0.05 %,
phosphorous: <2%. Very brittle; not very
useful directly as a material.
Cast iron
 Made by re melting pig iron &removing
impurities in a furnace(cupola).
• Contain
-iron(92–95%)
-carbon(2–4%)
-silicon(1-3%)
- traces of manganese, phosphorus, sulfur
• Shaped by being cast-iron is poured into a mold
while it is liquid, allowed to solidify inside the mold.
Cont…
Properties
 Brittle–due to large carbon amount, difficult to weld.
 Low tensile strength(110MPa)but high compressive
strength.
Types(depends on chemical composition and cooling rate)
• Gray cast iron–commonly used
• White cast iron–harder, more resistant
• Malleable cast iron –can be malleable
Uses
 Manhole covers, engine blocks,
machine tools, cookware, hardware,
fire hydrants, pipes. (Not subjected
to tensile strength)
Wrought iron
 Purest form of iron

 Made by refining pig iron in
a furnace
• Contain
-iron (98 %)
-carbon (0.1 –0.25 %)
-slag (2-3%)
- traces of sulfur, silicon,
phosphorus, manganese
Properties
• Malleable, ductile, can be easily welded &
machined.
•Good resistance to corrosion
• Moderate tensile strength (310-380MPa)
Uses
• Ornamental work, pipes, vehicle
components, bars, chain.
Steel
 Invention of steel in1856 by Henry Bessemer.
 Bessemer process was the first inexpensive
process for the mass-production of steel from
molten pig iron.
• Contain
-iron
-carbon(0.12–1.5%)
-phosphorous & sulfur<0.1%
-manganeseupto0.5%
-siliconupto0.3%
Conversion to steel products
Steel forming
 Molten steel are cast directly into the basic shape(slab,
bloom, billets)or the ingot (once hardened)are rolled in
rolling mills and transform into slab, bloom, billet.
-a slab(For making plates, sheets, strip and other flat-
rolled steel products)
-a bloom (For making beams and columns)
-a billet(Use to make bars, pipes, wire and wire products)
Mechanical operation
 Steel properties are greatly
influenced by the mechanical
operation that change ingot,
bloom, billets or slabs into useful
shape.
 The operations are rolling,
extruding and drawing.
 The operations can be done while
the steel is in plastic
condition(1090ºC)– hot working
or at room temperature (cold
working).
Rolling - The shaping of metal by
squeezing it through a series of
rollers.
Extrusion- Forcing a hot billet

through a die of the desired shape.
Drawing - Pulling steel through a

small die to form wire or a small
rod.(e.g. round, square)
Properties of steel
A steel with a wide variety of characteristics can be produced

by
 altering the carbon content
 adding alloy (metal e.g. nickel, chromium, tungsten etc.)
 to steel to improve its characteristics e.g. corrosion resistance,
strength, ductility and machine ability .e.g. Stainless steel
contains chromium and nickel. Anti corrosion & acid proof.
 different heat treatment
 mechanical operation (hot or cold rolling, drawing.
extrusion etc.
Heat treatment of Steel
The heating and cooling processes are used to change the structure of a
metal and alter its mechanical properties. (e.g. Cooling rapidly in cold
water makes it harder and more brittle)
Ductility
Steel has high ductility. Ductility is the property of a material by which it
can with stand extensive deformation without failure under high
tensile stresses. It usually shows large visible deflections before failure
or collapse.
Tensile Strength
 Most important property. Depends on types of steel. Tensile
strength for structural steel(400–900MPa)
Types of steel
 Mild steel (Low carbon steel) <0·25%carbon);cheap,
strong and easily shaped. Main metal for construction.
 Medium carbon steel
(0·25%- 0.5%carbon) Rails, boilers, plates, axles,
structures.
 Steel Alloy
Ni-steel(Gear, shaft, cable),Mn-steel(Rail tracks)
 High tensile steel
e.g. as reinforcing material (in the form of wires) in pre
stressed concrete.
 High carbon steel(0·5% -1.5 % carbon); Stronger than
mild steel but more brittle. Used to make tools and cutters.
 Galvanized Steel
that has been plated with zinc to improve corrosion resistance.
Classification of
steel products
 Structural steel –plates, bars,
pipes ,tubes, structural shapes–
I, H beams, channel, angle
 Fastening product used for structural connections- bolt ,nuts,
washers.
 Reinforcing steel plain / deformed bar, Wire fabric for concrete

Reinforcement.
 Miscellaneous products e.g. forms, Pans.

Advantages of steel in building
construction
1.High strength/weight ratio
 Steel has a high strength /weight ratio. This
property makes steel a very attractive structural
material for high rise buildings & long span
bridges.
Cont...
2.Ductility
 Steel can undergo large plastic deformation
before failure, thus providing a large reserve
strength.
 Properly designed steel structures can have high
ductility, which is an important characteristic for
resisting shock loading such as blasts or earth
quakes.
Cont...
3.Speed of erection.
 Steel structures can be erected quite rapidly
therefore reducing the cost of construction.
 Structural steel framing can be rapidly
designed, purchased, fabricated and erected
without need for curing and other delays of
concrete and masonry construction.
Cont...
4.Quality of construction
 Steel structures can be built with high-quality
workmanship.
5.Ease of repair, modification & change
 Steel structures in general can be repaired
quickly and easily. When building uses change or
are improved, structural steel can be easily
modified and reinforced to accommodate the
new requirements.
6.Adaptation of prefabrication
 Highly suitable for prefabrication and mass
production.
7.Repetitive use
 Steel can be reused after a structure is
disassembled. Most steel today is a recycled
product, and nearly all structural steel from
building demolition is recycled. This provides
salvage value, reduces demolition expenses,
reduces land fill volume and helps the
environment.
8.Expanding existing structures
 Steel buildings can be easily expanded in any
direction.
Disadvantages of steel
1.General cost
 Steel structures may be more costly than other types of
structures.
2.Fireproofing
 The strength of steel is reduced substantially when heated
at temperatures commonly observed in building fires.
Consequently, steel frames in buildings must have
adequate fireproofing.
Cont…
3.Maintenance
 Steel structures exposed to air and water, such as
bridges, are susceptible to corrosion and should be
painted regularly. Application of weathering and
corrosion-resistant steels may eliminate this
problem.
4.Susceptibility to buckling
 Due to high strength/weight ratio, steel
compression members are in general more slender
and consequently more susceptible to buckling
than reinforced concrete compression members.
Non ferrous metal
use as original metal or as alloy
Aluminum
 Lightweight - 1/3 weight steel and copper; excellent corrosion resistance;
low strength
Uses
 Roofing, window & door frames, door & window handles, protective
covering.
Copper
 High electrical conductivity; readily bent & cut; good corrosion resistance
.
Uses
 Electrical conductor, heating vessels.
Cont...
Tin
 Resistance to acid corrosion, good conductor of heat &
electricity.
Uses
 Protective covering, alloy, household purpose, coating for
food containers.
Zinc
 Good conductor of heat ;high corrosion resistance,
Uses
 Roofing material, batteries, protective covering
Corrosion and wear
- Corrosion  Metal + Oxygen (in the presence of water or moist
air)
- In almost all cases, failure of metals by mechanical wear
under abrasion occur gradually
- Five classification of corrosion of metals
i. Atmospheric  Excess Oxygen available + moisture
ii. Water immersion  If water contains undissolved oxygen
only
- If water is acidic  corrosion is accelerated
- If water is alkaline  corrosion is retarded
iii. Soil  Toxic ingredients coming in contact with metals
iv. Chemicals other than water ( sulfates, chlorides,…)
v. Electrolytic
- From currents of power circuits
- Usually can be prevented by suitable preservatives
Prevention of corrosion
- Coating by paints
- Most common
- Usually mechanically weak  cracks and wear out
 Paint must be renewed periodically (2 – 3 yrs.)
- Coating by asphalt or coal tar
- if contact with moist soil or immersed in water
- Incase metals (usually steel) in concrete
- If cracked, loses its protection capacity  shall be
replaced or repaired
Walt Disney Concert Hall: Frank Gehry, 2003
steel clad hall it seats 2,265 people, an example of Deconstructivism, opened
on October 23, 2003. While the architecture (as with other Gehry works)
evoked mixed opinions, the acoustics of the concert hall were widely praised.
Peter B. Lewis Building: Frank Gehry , named after the chief
executive and president of Progressive Insurance, a building in the
Case Western Reserve campus is worth $62 million.
Experience Music Project, Seattle : Frank Gehry
Some comments: “FG has created some wonderful buildings,
like the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, but his Seattle effort,
the Experience Music Project, is not one of them” , “something
that crawled out of the sea, rolled over, and died”, Forbes
magazine called it one of the world’s 10 ugliest buildings.
Others describe it as a “blob” or call it “The Hemorrhoids”.
Gehry Tower: Frank Gehry is a nine-story building; in
Hanover, Germany. Constructed of stainless steel, the tower is
memorable for the noticeable twist in its outer façade on a
ferroconcrete core, making optimal use of the relatively small
piece of ground on which it is located. Like many of Gehry’s
buildings, the tower was created with the most modern
technology available at the time. Gehry’s office first created a
1:100 model, which was then scanned and imported into CAD
software to be able to compute the dimensions for the individual
parts, all of which vary in size and shape.
Construction began in 1999, cost 8.5 million Deutsche Mark, and
the building was officially opened June 28, 2001.
Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao: Frank Gehry
opened to the public in 1997,was immediately vaulted to
prominence as one of the world’s most spectacular
buildings in the style of Deconstructivism. Like much of
Gehry’s other work, the structure consists of radically
sculpted, organic contours. Sited as it is in a port town, it is
intended to resemble a ship. Its brilliantly reflective panels
resemble fish scales, echoing the other organic life (and, in
particular, fish-like) forms that recur commonly in Gehry’s
designs, as well as the river Nervión upon which the
museum sits.
Stiftung Universum Science Center, Bremen,
Germany : Thomas Klumpp
a conference complex also used for science
presentations and exhibits. Reinforced concrete frame
with steel cladding, fish concept
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Chapter 2 Metals

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Metals

Metal is classified as:

 Purest form of iron

Extrusion- Forcing a hot billet

Drawing - Pulling steel through a

A steel with a wide variety of characteristics can be produced

 Reinforcing steel plain / deformed bar, Wire fabric for concrete

 Miscellaneous products e.g. forms, Pans.

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