Basic Logical Operators

Outline

 Negations
 Conjunctions
 Disjunctions
 Conditional Statement
 Tautologies and Contradictions
 Biconditional and Equivalent Statements
Negations

Definition: If p is true, then ~p is false; and if p is false, then ~p is true.

Negations

Definition: If p is true, then ~p is false; and if p is false, then ~p is true.

Truth Table for NEGATION

p ~p
T F
F T
Example:
Write the negation of each of the following statements.

1. Manila City is in the Philippines

Example:
Write the negation of each of the following statements.

1. Manila City is in the Philippines

Ans. a. Manila City is not in the Philippines.
b. It is not the case that Manila City is in the Philippines.
Example:
Write the negation of each of the following statements.

1. Manila City is in the Philippines

Ans. a. Manila City is not in the Philippines.
b. It is not the case that Manila City is in the Philippines.

2. The product of two odd integers is even

Example:
Write the negation of each of the following statements.

1. Manila City is in the Philippines

Ans. a. Manila City is not in the Philippines.
b. It is not the case that Manila City is in the Philippines.

2. The product of two odd integers is even

Ans. a. The product of two odd integers is odd.
b. The product of two odd integers is not even.
Conjunctions
A compound statement formed by connecting two statements with the word
“and” is called conjunction. In symbols, it is written as “p Λ q” which is read as “p
and q”.
In this case, the resulting sentence is true if both constituent sentences are true
and is false otherwise
If p and q are true, then p Λ q is true; otherwise p Λ q is false.
Conjunctions
A compound statement formed by connecting two statements with the word
“and” is called conjunction. In symbols, it is written as “p Λ q” which is read as “p
and q”.
In this case, the resulting sentence is true if both constituent sentences are true
and is false otherwise
If p and q are true, then p Λ q is true; otherwise p Λ q is false.
Truth Table for CONJUNCTION
p q pΛq
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Disjunctions
A compound statement formed by connecting two statements with the word “or”
is called a disjunction.
Symbolically, “p ꓦ q” which is read as “p or q”.
The resulting sentence is false if both constituent sentences are false and is true
otherwise.
If p and q are false, then p ꓦ q is false; otherwise p ꓦ q is true.
Disjunctions
A compound statement formed by connecting two statements with the word “or”
is called a disjunction.
Symbolically, “p ꓦ q” which is read as “p or q”.
The resulting sentence is false if both constituent sentences are false and is true
otherwise.
If p and q are false, then p ꓦ q is false; otherwise p ꓦ q is true.
Truth Table for DISJUNCTION
p q pꓦq
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Conditional Statement
• A compound statement formed by connecting two statements with the words
“if…,then” is called a conditional.
• Symbolically, “p→q” which is read as “If p, then q” or “p implies q”.
• The statement p is called the antecedent of the conditional and statement q is the
consequent of the conditional.
• In this case, the resulting sentence is only false whenever the antecedent is true and
consequent is false and is true otherwise.
Conditional Statement
• A compound statement formed by connecting two statements with the words
“if…,then” is called a conditional.
• Symbolically, “p→q” which is read as “If p, then q” or “p implies q”.
• The statement p is called the antecedent of the conditional and statement q is the
consequent of the conditional.
• In this case, the resulting sentence is only false whenever the antecedent is true and
consequent is false and is true otherwise.
Truth Table for CONDITIONAL STATEMENT
p q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Example:
Construct the truth table of the following:
1. ~p ꓥ q

p q ~p ~p ꓥ q

T T

T F

F T

F F
Example:
Construct the truth table of the following:
1. ~p ꓥ q

p q ~p ~p ꓥ q

T T F F

T F F F

F T T T

F F T F
Example:
Construct the truth table of the following:
2. ~(p ꓥ q) ꓥ (~r)
p q r pꓥq ~(p ꓥ q) ~r ~(p ꓥ q) ꓥ (~r)
T T T
T T F
T F T
T F F
F T T
F T F
F F T
F F F
Example:
Construct the truth table of the following:
2. ~(p ꓥ q) ꓥ (~r)
p q r pꓥq ~(p ꓥ q) ~r ~(p ꓥ q) ꓥ (~r)
T T T T
T T F T
T F T F
T F F F
F T T F
F T F F
F F T F
F F F F
Example:
Construct the truth table of the following:
2. ~(p ꓥ q) ꓥ (~r)
p q r pꓥq ~(p ꓥ q) ~r ~(p ꓥ q) ꓥ (~r)
T T T T F
T T F T F
T F T F T
T F F F T
F T T F T
F T F F T
F F T F T
F F F F T
Example:
Construct the truth table of the following:
2. ~(p ꓥ q) ꓥ (~r)
p q r pꓥq ~(p ꓥ q) ~r ~(p ꓥ q) ꓥ (~r)
T T T T F F
T T F T F T
T F T F T F
T F F F T T
F T T F T F
F T F F T T
F F T F T F
F F F F T T
Example:
Construct the truth table of the following:
2. ~(p ꓥ q) ꓥ (~r)
p q r pꓥq ~(p ꓥ q) ~r ~(p ꓥ q) ꓥ (~r)
T T T T F F F
T T F T F T F
T F T F T F F
T F F F T T T
F T T F T F F
F T F F T T T
F F T F T F F
F F F F T T T
Tautologies and Contradictions

• A compound statement is a tautology if its truth value is always T,

regardless of the truth values of the statements of which it is
composed.
• It is a contradiction if its truth value is always F, regardless of the truth
values of its variables.
Example
:
The proposition p ꓦ ~p is a tautology as the following table illustrates. The last
column of the table is always true T.

p ~p p ꓦ ~p

T F T

F T T
Example
:
The proposition p ꓥ ~p is a contradiction as the following table illustrates. The last
column of the table is always false F.

p ~p p Λ ~p

T F F

F T F
Biconditional Statements
• A compound statement formed by connecting two statements with the words “if
and only if” is called a biconditional.
• Symbolically, “p↔q” which is read as “p if and only if q.”
• In this case, the resulting sentence is true whenever the antecedent p as well as
the consequent q have the same truth values and false otherwise.
Biconditional Statements
• A compound statement formed by connecting two statements with the words “if
and only if” is called a biconditional.
• Symbolically, “p↔q” which is read as “p if and only if q.”
• In this case, the resulting sentence is true whenever the antecedent p as well as
the consequent q have the same truth values and false otherwise.

Truth Table for Biconditional Statement

p q p↔q

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F T
Equivalent Statements

Denoted by ≡ are statements whose truth values are either both true or
both false or whenever they have identical truth tables. Hence,
biconditional statements which has a true truth value are called
equivalences.
Example 1

Prove that p → q is equivalent to ~q → ~p

p q p→q ~q ~p ~q → ~p
T T
T F
F T
F F
Example
Prove that p → q is equivalent to ~q → ~p

p q p→q ~q ~p ~q → ~p
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Example
Prove that p → q is equivalent to ~q → ~p

p q p→q ~q ~p ~q → ~p
T T T F
T F F T
F T T F
F F T T
Example
Prove that p → q is equivalent to ~q → ~p

p q p→q ~q ~p ~q → ~p
T T T F F
T F F T F
F T T F T
F F T T T
Example
Prove that p → q is equivalent to ~q → ~p

p q p→q ~q ~p ~q → ~p
T T T F F T
T F F T F F
F T T F T T
F F T T T T
Example
Prove that p → q is equivalent to ~q → ~p

p q p→q ~q ~p ~q → ~p
T T T F F T
T F F T F F
F T T F T T
F F T T T T
Example
Prove that p → q is equivalent to ~q → ~p

p q p→q ~q ~p ~q → ~p
T T T F F T
T F F T F F
F T T F T T
F F T T T T

Therefore, p → q is equivalent to ~q → ~p
Example 2

Prove that (p → q) Λ (q → p) is equivalent to p ↔ q

p q p→q q→p (p → q) → (q → p) p↔q

T T
T F
F T
F F
Example 2
Prove that (p → q) Λ (q → p) is equivalent to p ↔ q

p q p→q q→p (p → q) → (q → p) p↔q

T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Example 2
Prove that (p → q) Λ (q → p) is equivalent to p ↔ q

p q p→q q→p (p → q) Λ (q → p) p↔q

T T T T
T F F T
F T T F
F F T T
Example 2
Prove that (p → q) Λ (q → p) is equivalent to p ↔ q

p q p→q q→p (p → q) Λ (q → p) p↔q

T T T T T
T F F T F
F T T F F
F F T T T
Example 2
Prove that (p → q) Λ (q → p) is equivalent to p ↔ q

p q p→q q→p (p → q) Λ (q → p) p↔q

T T T T T T
T F F T F F
F T T F F F
F F T T T T
Example 2
Prove that (p → q) Λ (q → p) is equivalent to p ↔ q

p q p→q q→p (p → q) Λ (q → p) p↔q

T T T T T T
T F F T F F
F T T F F F
F F T T T T
Example 2
Prove that (p → q) Λ (q → p) is equivalent to p ↔ q

p q p→q q→p (p → q) Λ (q → p) p↔q

T T T T T T
T F F T F F
F T T F F F
F F T T T T

Therefore, (p → q) Λ (q → p) is equivalent to p ↔ q