ENV 107

Introduction to Environmental Science

2020
Faculty: ARK

Lecture on
Biodiversity
 Biodiversity
Biodiversity is a combination of two words 'biological'
and 'diversity'. Biodiversity refers to the number,
variety and variability of all life forms on earth. These
include millions of plants, animals and micro-
organisms, the genes they contain, and the intricate
ecosystems of which they are a part.

Why Is Biodiversity Important?

The earth has an enormous variety of plants and
animals, both domesticated and wild, as also a wide
array of habitats and ecosystems.
 Importance of Biodiversity
This diversity meets the food, medicinal, clothing, shelter,
spiritual as well as the recreational needs of millions of
people around the world.
It also ensures that ecological functions such as the
supply of clean water, nutrient cycling and soil
protection are maintained.
In fact, biodiversity loss would mean a threat to the
survival of the human race.
These are some reasons why each one of us should be
concerned about biodiversity and its loss.
 Importance of Biodiversity
This rich variety of genes, species, biological communities,
and life-sustaining biological and chemical processes
gives us food, wood, fibers, energy, raw materials,
industrial chemicals, and medicines, all of which pour
hundreds of billions of dollars into the world econ­omy
each year and provides us with free recycling,
purification, and natural pest control services.
Loss of biodiversity (1) reduces the availability of
ecosystem services and (2) decreases the ability of
species, communities, and ecosystems to adapt to
changing environmental conditions. Biodiversity is
nature's insurance policy against disasters.
 Importance of Biodiversity
Bio-diversity of wild species are important because of the
economic, medical, scientific, ecological, aesthetic and
recreational value of all species.

Human beings are dependent for their health, well-

being and enjoyment of life on fundamental biological
systems & processes.

Scientitsts and researchers needs wild strain of genetic

resources for deriving improved crop and livestocks for
sustenance of supply to increased human needs
 Importance of Biodiversity
Humanity derives all of its food (almost 90%) from
domistication of wild species. Many medicines and
industrial products come from the wild and
domesticated components of biological diversity.

Biotic resources also serve recreation and tourism, and

underpin the ecosystems which provide us with many
services. Ecotourism is a billion dollar industry
worldwide per year.

While the benefits of such resources are considerable,

the value of biological diversity is not restricted to these.
Biodiversity also has important social and cultural
values.
 Importance of Biodiversity
In general, benefits arising from the conservation
of components of biological diversity can be
considered in three groups:

1.Ecosystem services, e.g. Protection of water resources,

Soils formation and protection, Nutrient storage and
cycling, Pollution breakdown and absorption.

2.Biological resources. e,g. Food, Medicinal resources,

Wood products, Ornamental plants.

3. Social benefits . e.g. Research, education and

monitoring, Recreation, Cultural values.
 Importance of Biodiversity

Ecological importance:
• Trees provide habitat and food for birds, insects, other
plants and animals, fungi, and micro-organisms;
• Insects, bats, birds, and other animals serve as
pollinators;
• Parasites and predators act as natural population
controls;
• Various organisms, such as earthworms and bacteria,
are responsible for recycling organic materials and
maintaining the productivity of soils;
• Green plants remove carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere and replenish it with oxygen.
 Importance of Biodiversity
• Forests, for example, are particularly important "sinks"
for the absorption of carbon dioxide and thus are key
factors in reducing global climate change;
• Wetlands serve as sponges to reduce the impacts of
floods and to cleanse streams by filtering sediments,
nutrients, and contaminants from inflowing waters.
• The interaction of all these natural processes forms a
complex web of life. If any part of this web suffers or
breaks downs, the future of the other parts is
threatened. Humans are in many cases degrading and
destroying the ability of biological diversity to perform
the services mentioned above.
 Importance of Biodiversity
Economical importance:
• Food: species are hunted (e.g. antelopes, birds), fished
(e.g. cod, tuna fish), and gathered (e.g. fruits, berries,
mushrooms), as well as cultivated for agriculture (e.g.
wheat, corn, rice, vegetables) and aquaculture (e.g.
salmons, mussels). It is interesting to know that, of the
about 80,000 available comestible plants, humans use
less than 30 to satisfy 90% of our planet's alimentary
needs;
• Fuel: timber and coal are only two examples of natural
resources used to produce energy;
 Importance of Biodiversity
• Shelter and warmth: timber and other forest products
(e.g. oak, beech, pine) are used as building materials
and for shelter. Fibers such as wool and cotton are used
to make clothes;
• Medicines: both traditional medicines and processed
drugs are obtained from biodiversity: penicillin is
produced by a fungusand quinine from the bark of
cinchona trees;
• Other goods such as paper and pencils come from raw
materials provided by the biodiversity
 Importance of Biodiversity
Indirect Services

• Clean and drinkable water: only a small amount -

about 1% - of the water on our planet is usable directly.
The rest is either salty (97%) or frozen (2%). Forests
around the world filter our usable water again and
again, constantly replenishing the water we use for
drinking, bathing, and growing crops;
• air to breathe: plants around the world take carbon
dioxide out of the air and put oxygen into it - oxygen
that almost all creatures need to breathe

• Fertile soils: micro-organisms recycle the soil's organic

matter and maintain its fertility;
 Importance of Biodiversity
Indirect Services

• Pollination: insect, bird and bat species carry pollen

from one plant to another (or from one part of a plant
to another), thus fertilising fruit crops and flowers.

• Cultural importance:
• Plants and animals are often used as symbols, for
example in flags, paintings, sculptures, photographs,
stamps, songs and legends.
• Finally, biodiversity is also beautiful: it is a pleasure to
see and smell flowers in a field, to listen to birds
singing, etc.
 Kinds of Biodiversity
Kinds of biodiversity include the following:
• Genetic diversity (variety in the genetic makeup among
individuals within a species)
• Species diversity (variety among the species or distinct
types of living organisms found in different habitats of the
planet).
• Ecological diversity (variety of forests, deserts, grasslands,
streams, lakes, oceans, coral reefs, wet­lands, and other
biological communities)
• Functional diversity (biological and chemical processes or
functions such as energy flow and matter cycling needed
for the survival of species and biologi­cal communities).
 Kinds Biodiversity
• Ecosystem diversity (Which refers to the variety of
habitat types in an ecosystem and the biologic richness
of those habitats). or Habitat diversity: Habitat
diversity (the diversity of habitats in a given unit area)
• Domesticated diversity (When we think of biodiversity,
we tend to think only of wild plants and animals. But
there is also considerable diversity among
domesticated plants and animals. Domesticated
biodiversity may be the result of manipulation by
humans, or of natural adaptations to different
conditions over a period of time)
 Biological Evolution:
Biological evaluation refers to the change in inherited
characteristics of a population from generation to generation.
Biological evaluation is one of the features that distinguish life
from everything else in the universe.

According to the theory of biological evaluation, new species

arise as a result of competition for resources and the
difference among individuals in their adaptations to
environmental conditions.

Biological evaluation explains the diversity of different species

that exist today.
 How do new species evolve?
• Speciation, which derives from natural selection that allows species
to come out of one species;

• Speciation is the process of generating a new species.

Takes place in two phases, Geographic Isolation and Reproductive
Isolation;

• Geographic Isolation occurs when groups of the same species are

physically separated for long periods of time. This can be due to
migration, or physical barriers;

• Reproductive Isolation occurs when two geographically isolated

populations can no longer reproduce with one another. This
happens when mutations and natural selection act independently
on the two populations. This process as a whole is called
Divergence, or Divergent Evolution.
 Speciation, Extinction & Biodiversity
Speciation is the process of generating a new
species. It derives from natural selection that allows
species to come out of one species; It is the
evolutionary process by which new biological species
arise. Under certain circumstances, natural selection
can lead to an entirely new species. In this process, two
species arise from one. So, Speciation is the evolution
of two species from one species because of divergent
natural selection in response to changes in
environmental conditions. It usually takes thousands of
years to take place.
 How do new species evolve?
The most common mechanism of speciation (especially
among animals) takes place in two phases: Geographic
Isolation and Reproductive Isolation;
Geographic Isolation occurs when groups of the same
species are physically separated for long periods of time.
This can be due to migration, or physical barriers;
Reproductive Isolation occurs when two geographically
isolated populations can no longer reproduce with one
another. This happens when mutations and natural
selection act independently on the two populations. This
process as a whole is called Divergence, or Divergent
Evolution.
Geographic Isolation
 Reproductive isolation
Reproductive isolation occurs when two geographically
isolated populations can no longer reproduce with one
another. This happens when mutations and natural
selection act independently on the two populations. This
process as a whole is called divergence, or divergent
Evolution.
If this process, called divergence, continues long enough,
members of the geographically and reproductively
isolated populations may become so different in genetic
makeup that (1) they cannot interbreed, or (2) if they do,
they cannot produce live, fertile offspring. Then one
species has become two, and speciation has occurred
through divergent evolution.
 Extinction & Biodiversity
Extinction is the end of an organism or of a group of
organisms, normally a species. The moment of
extinction is generally considered to be the death of
the last individual of the group. The extinction of any
species is an irrevocable loss of part of the biological
richness of Earth, the only place in the universe
known to support living creatures.
Extinction occurs when conditions change, and a
species must either evolve, or move to a more
favorable area. If not, they will become extinct.
 Extinction & Biodiversity
Local extinction occurs when a species disappears from
a part of its range but persists elsewhere.
Global extinction means that a species becomes extinct
everywhere.
As local environmental conditions change, a cer­tain
number of species disappear at a low rate, called
background extinction.

In contrast, mass extinction is a significant rise in

extinction rates above the back­ground level.
 Causes of Extinction
Causes of extinction are usually grouped into five
categories:
Population risk,
Environmental risk,
Natural catastrophe,
Genetic risk, and
Human actions.
Population Risk: Random variations in population rates can
cause a species in low abundance to become extinct.
 Causes of Extinction
• Environmental Risk: Population size can be affected by
changes in the environment that occur from day to
day, month to month, year to year, even though the
changes are not severe enough to be considered
environmental catastrophes. Environmental risks
involve variation in the physical or biological
environment, including variations in predator, prey,
symbiotic, or competitor species.

• Natural Catastrophe: Fires, major storms,

earthquakes, and floods are natural catastrophes on
land; changes in currents and upwellings are ocean
catastrophes.
 Causes of Extinction
• Genetic Risk: Detrimental change in genetic
characteristics not caused by external
environmental changes is called genetic risk.
Genetic changes can occur in small populations
from reduced genetic variation, genetic drift, and
mutation.
• Human Actions cause extinction of species
through
(1) intentional hunting or harvesting (for commercial
purposes, for sport, etc);
(2)disruption or elimination of habitats; Human usage of
resources, logging, surface mining, conversion of forests
and grasslands for cropland, wetland loss.
 Causes of Extinction
(3) Introduction of new parasites (transported by
introduced species), predators (e.g. introduction of
exotic species such as dogs on islands caused extinction
of dodo birds, whose eggs, laid on ground, were easy
prey for dogs), or competitors of a species; and
(4) pollution of the environment.
(5) Accidental killing
(6) Urbanization
(7) Damming/Flooding
(8) Agricultural conversion
 BIODEVERSITY –
EXTINCTION OF SPECIES

A species heading towards Biological Extinction can be Classified

as either endangered or threatened:
- Endangered: When few individual survivors that the species
soon become extinct over all or most of its natural range.
Captivity measures need to be taken. E.g. Panda, Alligator
- Threatened: a species is still abundant in its natural range but
is declining in its numbers and is likely to become endangered.
Example Otter
A species going to under ecological extinction can be classified as
either Rare or Isolated
- Rare: Species are so low that they are on the process of local
extinction
- Isolated: When the species are caught up in specific place and
can not play role in ecological activities
.
 Threats to Biodiversity
 Natural extinctions – Climate changes due to plate
tectonics, variations in solar output, volcanic eruptions,
competition from other species,…
 An estimated 10,000 species/subspecies lost/yr
 1.4 million presently known
 Human Actions– Human usage of resources, logging,
surface mining, conversion of forests and grasslands for
cropland, wetland loss.
 “Endangered” – in imminent danger of extinction.
 “Threatened” – likely to become endangered, perhaps
locally in near future.
 “Vulnerable” – naturally rare or locally depleted, may be
listed in the future.
Endangered Species
 Critically Endangered
• Harlequin toad (Costa • Seychelles scops-owl
Rica & Panama)
 Vulnerable
• Verreaux's Sifaka Lemur • Yellow-crowned
(Madagascar) butterfly fish found in
Guam
Threatened Critically endangered
• Polar Bear • Corypha taliera Roxb
• A type of Palm in BD
 Various types of species
• The various species may following types:
• Native Species: Species that normally live and thrive in
a particular ecosystem are known as native species.
•  Ubiquitous species : Species that are found almost
everywhere are ubiquitous species. Humans are
ubiquitous, some bacteria (E. coli) as well.
•  Endemic Species: A species that is native to a
particular area and not native elsewhere is called an
endemic species. Monterey pine is endemic to a
portion of California coast and exotic in New Zealand.
 Various types of species
•  Cosmopolitan species: A species with a broad
distribution, occurring all over the world wherever the
environment is appropriate, is called cosmopolitan
species. The moose is found both in North America and
Europe and is therefore a cosmopolitan species of
northern boreal forests.
•  Nonnative species, Exotic, or alien species: Species
that migrate into an ecosystem or are deliberately r
accidentally introduced into an ecosystem by humans
are called nonnative species, exotic species, or alien
species.
 Various types of species
• Indicator Species: Species that serve as early warnings
that a community or an ecosystem is being damaged
are called indicator species. Birds are excellent
biological indicators because they are found almost
everywhere and respond quickly to environmental
change.
• Keystone Species: The roles of some species in an
ecosystem are much more important than their
abundance. They are known as keystone species. In
tropical forests, various species of bees, bats, ants, and
hummingbirds play keystone roles by pollinating
flowering plants, dispersing seed or both.
 Exotic Species in Bangladesh

• Ipil Ipil • Piranha

 Exotic Species in Bangladesh (cont)

• African Cat Fish • Acacia

 How to Protect Biodiversity?

There are three basic approaches:

• The Ecosystem Approach: preserving balanced
population of species in their native habitat,
establishing legally protected wilderness, park and
eliminating exotic species.
• The Species Approach: based on protecting
endangered species by identifying them, giving them
legal protection, preserving and managing their crucial
habitats, propagating them in captivity and
reintroducing them.
• The Wildlife Management Approach: Manage for
sustained yield (Game species), establishing harvest
quota, developing plans and programs, using
international treaties, protection of migration
 Biodiversity in Bangladesh
• Bangladesh has about
–20 113 species of mammals,
–over 630 species of birds,
–125 species of reptiles
–22 species of amphibians.
–260 freshwater species and
–475 marine species.
–Other faunal species include: 327 mollusks and 66 corals.
• Bangladesh has been the abode of 5000 angiosperm species and
several subspecies. Of them 160 species are used as crops.
• The crops are rice, wheat, jute, pulses, oilseed plants, minor
cereals, sugar corps, fruit plants, vegetables, root rubber crops,
spices, forest trees, beverage crops, flowers, medicinal and
aromatic plants and other wild plants
 Interaction Between Species
Species interact via:
• Competition: Negative outcome for both groups
• Symbiosis: Mutually benefited
• Predation or Parasitism: Benefits one and is
detrimental or harmful to the other

• Each type of interaction affects evolution, the

persistence of species and the overall diversity of life
 Symbiosis
Symbiosis between Coral and Clownfish and the Anemone
Algae symbiosis in a coral reef
Predation
 Parasitism
Parasitism in Tomato Parasitism: human &
Hornworm mosquito
 Environmental factors influencing biodiversity

Factors that tend to increase diversity

• A physically diverse habitat.
• Moderate amounts of disturbance.
• A small variation in environmental conditions.
• High diversity at one trophic level, increasing the
diversity at another trophic level.
• An environment highly modified by life.
• Middle stages of succession.
• Evolution.
 Environmental factors influencing biodiversity
Factors that tend to decrease diversity
• Environmental stress.
• Extreme environments.
• A severe limitation in the supply of exotic species.
• Extreme amounts of disturbance.
• Recent introduction of exotic species.
• Geographic isolation.
 
 BIOGEOGRAPHY

Geography of Life: Occurrence of different species

at different parts of the world. The kinds and number
of species vary greatly from place to place on earth.

Biogeography is the geographic distribution of living

organisms and their communities. The most important
unit of biogeography is the biome, a large geographic
area characterized by its environmental attributes and
by the plants and animals that inhabit the area. In
order to conserve biological diversity, it is important to
understand these large-scale, global patterns, which
are known as Biogeography.
 Wallace Realms: Biotic Provinces
A realm or biotic province is a region inhabited by
a characteristics set of Taxa (species, families,
orders) bounded by barriers that prevent the
spread of those distinctive kinds of life to other
regions and immigration of foreign species into it.

In 1876, the great British biologist Alfred Russell

Wallace divided world into six biogeographic
regions on the basis of fundamental features of
the animals found in those areas.
 Wallace Realms: Biotic Provinces

Wallace referred to these regions as realms and

named them
1. Neartic (North America),
2. Neotropical (Central and South America)
3. Palaearctic (Europe, Northern Asia, and Northern
Africa),
4. Ethiopian (Central and Southern Africa)
5. Oriental(The Indian Subcontinent and Malaysia),
6. Australian.

These regions are referred to as Wallace realms

 Wallace realms

The main biogeographic realms for animals are based on genetic factors.
E.g. within each realm, the vertebrates filling each realm are more similar to each
other than other vertebrates filling similar niches in other realms.
Bison and Pronghorn
antelope are the larger
mammalian herbivores in
North America;

Rodents fill niches in

South America

Kangaroos fill them

in Australia

Giraffes and Antelopes

fill the niches in
Central and South
Africa.
 Biotic Province: Continental drift

Continental drift is the slow movement of continents, has

played a major role in both speciation and extinction.
 Biotic Province

Continental drift
 Biotic Province

The main biogeographic realms for animals are based on genetic factors.
E.g. within each realm, the vertebrates filling each realm are more similar to each
other than other vertebrates filling similar niches in other realms.
 Biotic Province

• A biotic province is based on who is related to

who (characteristic set of taxa).
• Species within a biotic province are more closely
related to each other than to species within
other provinces.
• In two different biotic provinces, the same
ecological niche will be filled with species that
perform the same function and may look similar
but may have different genetic ancestries.
 Biomes
A biome is a kind of ecosystem based on
climatic similarity, such as a desert,
tropical rain forest, or grassland.

The rule of climatic similarity:

Similar environments lead to the evolution
of similar organisms in terms of form and
function and to similar ecosystems. This is
known as the rule of climatic similarity and
leads to the concept of the biome.
 Biomes : Evolution
• Convergent Evolution: The process by which
species evolve in different places of times and,
although they have different genetic heritages,
develop similar external forms and structures as
a result of adaptation to similar environments
• Divergent Evolution: Organisms with the same
ancestral genetic heritage migrate to different
habitats and evolve into species with different
external forms and structures, but continue to
have the same niche
 Biomes:Convergent Evolution

1.Similar environmental conditions lead to the evolution of

species with similar adaptations and to similar ecosystems.
The plants evolved to adapt to environmental stresses and
potentials and have come to look alike and prevail in like
habitats. The ancestral differences between these look-
alike plants can be found in their flowers, fruits and seeds.
Example of Convergent Evolution
• The Joshua Tree of North America
• Saguaro Cactus of North America
•Giant Euphorbia of East Africa
They are members of three different families (two cactus and
one spurge). Similar shapes are results of evolution in similar
environment/desert climate
 Biomes: Convergent Evolution

Joshua tree Saguaro cactus Euphorbia of East Africa

Given sufficient time and similar climates in different

areas, species similar in shape and form will tend to occur.
 Biomes: Divergent Evolution

• Evolved from a common ancestor but developed in

widely separated regions
• A population is separated and then separated
subpopulations evolve separately but retain some
common characteristics
• Example:
• Ostrich in Africa
• Rhea in South America
• Emu in Australia
 Biomes: Divergent Evolution

Ostrich in Africa Rhea in South America Emu in Australia

 Earth’s Biomes

The Earth’s biomes , each with its own characteristic

dominant shapes and forms of life.
1. Tundras
- treeless plains that occur in the harsh climates of
low rainfall and low average temperature
- two types: artic tundra and alpine tundra
- parts have permafrost: permanently frozen ground
2. Taiga or Boreal Forests
- includes the forests of the cold climates of high
latitudes and high altitudes
- dominant life forms including moose and other large
mammals, small flowering plants and trees
 Earth’s Biomes (Cont.)

3. Temperate Dedicious Forests

- occur in warmer climates than the boreal forest
4. Temperate Rainforest
- moderate temperatures, over 250 cm/year of rain
5. Temperate Woodlands
- Slightly drier climate than the deciduous forests
- fire is common and species adapt to it
6. Temperate Shrublands
- also called chaparral: miniature woodlands
7. Temperate Grasslands
- include many North American parries
 Earth’s Biomes (Cont.)
8. Tropical Rain Forests
- high average temperature and rainfall
9. Tropical Seasonal Forest and Savannas
- high average temperature, low latitudes, abundant but seasonal rainfall
10. Deserts
- The driest region that vegetation can survive.
11. Wetlands
- Include freshwater swaps, marshes and bogs – all have standing water
12. Freshwaters
- Have phytoplankton and estuaries
 Earth’s Biomes (Cont.)
13. Intertidal Areas
- Areas exposed to alternately to air during low tide and high tide
14. Open Ocean
- Also called the pelagic region
15. Bethos
- Bottom portion of the ocean
16. Upwellings
- Upward flows of ocean water
17. Hydrothermal Vents
- Occur in the deep ocean were plate tectonic processes create vents
Geographic Patterns of Life within Continent
Biome Pyramid
 Terrestrial biomes

• Although there is some disagreement among scientists

on how to divide up the Earth’s biomes, most can
agree on the following eight:

• Tropical Rainforest
• Tropical Savanna
• Desert
• Chaparral
• Grassland
• Temperate Deciduous Forest
• Temperate Boreal Forest
• Tundra