Internetworking

Samson A.
samialemayehu@gmail.com
School of Electrical & Computer Engineering,
Hawassa Institute of Technology
Chapter
Outline
 Internetworking Concepts
 Internetworking with TCP/IP
 Addressing System
 MAC, IP and Port
 IP Addressing, Subnetting, Masking
 Network Applications

2
 Introduction
• Internetworking:
• Is a set of interconnected networks.
• Is any interconnection between public, private, commercial,
industrial, or governmental computer networks by routing packet
through gateways.
• Network: is a group of two or more computer systems linked together.
• It is implemented in Layer 3 (Network Layer) of OSI model.
• There are three variants of internetwork or Internetworking,
depending on who administers and who participates in them.
• Internet,
• Intranet
• Extranet

Dec 2019 Internetworking 3

Internet
• The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer
networks.(Network of networks)
• Networks can be completely different, but they become
virtually interconnected to work as one network.
• Ethernet, ATM, modem, …
• TCP/IP is what links them
• It can be accessed by anyone who can get access from an
Internet Service Provider (ISP).
• It is not controlled by a central entity and therefore relies on
network devices and accepted conventions and protocols to
relay the data traffic until it gets to its destinations.
• Some countries have imposed rules to censor (edit) or to
control what kind of content is accessible by its citizen.

Dec 2019 Internetworking 4

Intranet

• An Intranet is a private network that is setup and controlled by

an organization to encourage interaction among its members,
to improve efficiency and to share information.
• Information and resources that are shared on an intranet
might include:
• Organizational policies and procedures,
• Announcements,
• Information about new products, and
• Confidential data of strategic value.
Intranet may have links to the Internet.

Dec 2019 Internetworking 5

Intranet vs Internet
• An intranet is a restricted-access network that works much like the
Internet, but is isolated from it.
• Similar to Internet, an intranet is based on TCP/IP protocols.
Therefore, a web page in an intranet may look and act just like any
other webpage on the Internet, but access is restricted to authorized
persons and devices.
• In some cases, access to an intranet is restricted by not connecting it
to other networks, but in other cases a firewall is used to deny access
to unauthorized entities.

Dec 2019 Internetworking 6

Intranet vs Internet Cont’d…
• The difference between an intranet and the Internet is defined
in terms of accessibility, size and control.
• Unless content filters are being used or the government is
censoring content, all the Internet’s content is accessible to
everyone.
• On the other hand an intranet is owned and controlled by a
single organization that decides which members are allowed
access to certain parts of the intranet. In general, an intranet
is usually very small and is restricted to the premises of a
single organization.

Dec 2019 Internetworking 7

Extranet

• An extranet is an extended intranet. In addition to allowing

access to members of an organization, an extranet uses
firewalls, access profiles, and privacy protocols to allow
access to users from outside the organization.

• In essence, an extranet is a private network that uses

Internet protocols and public networks to securely share
resources with customers, suppliers, vendors, partners, or
other businesses.

• Both intranets and extranets are owned, operated and

controlled by one organization.

Dec 2019 Internetworking 8

Internetworking with TCP/IP

• We might encounter different networks, like

Ethernet, ATM, …. But, by using internetworking
technologies, we can form a virtually
interconnected global network.
• This unity is possible by the TCP/IP protocol.
• This topic helps to understand how these
incompatible networks are interconnected

Dec 2019 Internetworking 9

Addressing System

• Introduction
• Number system
• Address System and Address Space
Notation

Dec 2019 Internetworking 10

Binary Numeral System - Base-2

• Binary numbers uses only 0 and 1 digits.

• Examples: Calculate the decimal Equivalent
10101 = 1×2^4+0×2^3+1×2^2+0×2^1+1×2^0
= 16+4+1= 21
10111 = 1×2^4+0×2^3+1×2^2+1×2^1+1×2^0
= 16+4+2+1= 23
100011 =
1×2^5+0×2^4+0×2^3+0×2^2+1×2^1+1×2^0
=32+2+1= 35

Dec 2019 Internetworking 11

Decimal Numeral System- Base-10

• Decimal numbers uses digits from 0 – 9

• These are the regular numbers that we use.
• Example:
2538 = 2×10^3+5×10^2+3×10^1+8×10^0
= 2000+500+30+8 = 2538

Dec 2019 Internetworking 12

Decimal to Binary conversion
Method 1: Short Division
Example: Convert (156)10 to binary (base 2)

Dec 2019 Internetworking 13

• Method 2: Descending Powers of two and
subtraction

Dec 2019 Internetworking 14

There are 3 address systems

• MAC address
• Port address
• IP address

Dec 2019 Internetworking 15

MAC address
• The Data link-layer addresses, sometimes called MAC
addresses, are locally defined addresses, each of which
defines:
• A specific host or router in a network
• Identifies a specific NIC in a computer network
• Each MAC address is unique
• Is 48 bits long: 24-bit-vender code and 24-bit-unique
value.
• Are not grouped logically
• Cannot be modified
• Do not give information about physical or logical network
configuration
Dec 2019 Internetworking 16
Port address

• At the transport layer, addresses are called port

numbers, and these define the application-layer
programs at the source and destination.
• Port numbers are local addresses that distinguish
between several programs running at the same time.

Service Port Number

HTTP 80
FTP 21
POP3 110
SMTP 25
Telnet 23

Dec 2019 Internetworking 17

IP address

• At the network-layer, the addresses are global, with the

whole Internet as the scope. A network-layer address (IP
Address) uniquely defines the connection of a device to
the Internet.
• Provide logical groupings
• IP address identifies both a network and a host
• Devised for use on large networks.
• Has a hierarchical structure
• Planned by Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)
• Two devices on the Internet can never have the same
address.

Dec 2019 Internetworking 18

Cont’d…

• There are two types of IP addressing schemes:

IPv4 and IPv6
1. IPv4 - has address limitation (32 bits).
2. IPv6 - is called, IPng (IP – the Next Generation) is a
new addressing scheme that would resolve the
limitations (128 bits)

Dec 2019 Internetworking 19

IPv4 Address
• It is 32 bits long with 4 octets.
• The minimum value for an octet is 0, and the maximum
value for an octet is 255.
• Each bit in the octet has a binary weight (128, 64, 32, 16,
8, 4, 2, 1).
• It can be represented in: A. B. C. D
• Binary notation and
• Dotted-decimal notation
• Or hexadecimal

Dec 2019 Internetworking 20

IPv4 addressing can be categorized as:
1. Class full IP Addressing
2. Classless IP Addressing
 Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR)

Dec 2019 Internetworking 21

Classful IP Addressing

• IP addressing scheme divided in to 5 classes; A, B,

C, D and E
• In the early days of the Internet, IP addresses were
allocated to organizations based on request rather
than actual need.
• When an organization received an IP network
address, that address was associated with a
“Class”, A, B, or C.
• This is known as Classful IP Addressing

Dec 2019 Internetworking 22

• Each IP address follows a basic format and
divided into two main parts:
1. The network address: identifies a network (as
class A network, class B network or class C
network) and it is assigned by Internet Service
Provider (ISP).
2. The host address: identifies a host on a
network and is assigned by the local network
administrator.

Dec 2019 Internetworking 23

Ranges of IPv4 Addresses
• Class of the network is determined by the first octet of
the address. Network bits and host bits can also be
identified with this octet.

Dec 2019 Internetworking 24

• Each Network is assigned a network address & every device or
interface (such as a router port) on the network is assigned a host
address.
• The 5 IP classes are split up based on the value in the 1st octet.
• The first octet of the IP classes is as shown

Dec 2019 Internetworking 25

Class A
• Assigned for governments and large corporations
throughout the world
• The 1st bit which is always a 0, is used to indicate the
address as a Class A address & the remaining 7 bits
are used to designate the Network. And the other 3
octets contain the Host address.
• Thus, each Class A address supports (27 = 128)
Networks and (224 = 16,777,216) hosts
• But, because addresses with all zeros aren‘t used &
address 127 is a special purpose address, 126 Class
A Networks and 224 – 2 hosts are available.

Dec 2019 Internetworking 26

Class B
• Addresses are assigned to large and medium – sized
companies
• It use the 1st 16 bits (two octets) for the Network
address and the last 2 octets are used for the Host
address.
• The 1st 2 bits, which are always 10, designate the
address as a Class B address & 14 bits are used to
designate the Network. This leaves 16 bits (two
octets) to designate the Hosts.
• So, using 216-2 , there can be 16,384 Class B
Networks & each Network can have (216 – 2) Hosts, or
65,534 Hosts.

Dec 2019 Internetworking 27

Class C

– Addresses are assigned to groups that do not meet

the qualifications to obtain Class A or B addresses
– Each Class C address use the first 24 bits for the
Network address and the last one octet for host
address
– The 1st 3 bits of all class C addresses are set to 110,
leaving 21 bits for the Network address, which means
there can be 224-3 = 2,097,152 Class C Networks, but
only 254 (28 – 2) Hosts per Network.

Dec 2019 Internetworking 28

Class D
– Addresses (also known as multicast addresses) are
reserved for multicasting
Multicasting: is the sending of a stream of data to
multiple computers simultaneously
Class E
• Addresses are reserved for research, testing, and
experimentation
• The Class E range starts from where Class D ends.

Dec 2019 Internetworking 29

Summary

• The table below shows summary of the default

IP address classes

Dec 2019 Internetworking 30

Special Addresses

• Class E and Limited broadcast:- Class E addresses (from

255.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255) are defined as reserved,
meaning that they should not be used on IP networks.
• Some research organizations use Class E addresses for
experimental purposes
• E.g. 255.255.255.255 is a limited broadcast address. If senders
direct an IP broadcast to 255.255.255.255 it indicates all other
nodes on the local network (LAN) should pick up that message
• Class A
• (127.0.0 – 127.255.255.255):- e.g.127.0.0.1 is a loopback
address which is a test mechanism of network adapters
• Zero addresses:- from 0.0.0.0 through 0.255.255.255 serve no
particular function in IP
• These addresses should not be considered part of the normal
Class A range

Dec 2019 Internetworking 31

Special Addresses - Private addresses

• The IP standard defines specific address ranges within Class A,

Class B, and Class C reserved for use by private networks
(intranets).
• Nodes are effectively free to use addresses in the private ranges if
they are not connected to the Internet, or if they reside behind
firewalls or other gateways that use Network Address Translation
(NAT).

Class Private Start Private Finish

Address Address
A 10.0.0.0 10.255.255.255
B 172.16.0.0 172.31.255.255
C 192.168.0.0 192.168.255.255

Dec 2019 Internetworking 32

Classless IP addressing

• Designed to solve the IPv4 addressing crisis

called Address Depletion

IPv4 - Address

Dec 2019 Internetworking 33

Short Term Solutions for Address depletion

IPv4 Enhancements:
•Subnet Mask
•CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing)
•VLSM (Variable Length Subnet Mask)
•Private Addressing
•NAT/PAT (Network Address Translation / Port Address
Translation)

Dec 2019 Internetworking 34

Subnetting, Subnet Mask
• Remember an IP address has 2 parts:
• The Network identification
• The Host identification
• In most cases, if you know the address class, it’s easy to separate
these 2 parts:- This is a standard address class structure.
• However, with the rapid growth of the internet and the ever-
increasing demand for new addresses, the standard address class
structure has been expanded by borrowing bits from the Host
portion to allow for more Networks.
• Under this addressing scheme, called Subnetting, separating the
Network and Host requires a special process called Subnet
Masking.
• Subnetting is the process of dividing a network & its IP
addresses into segments, each of which is called a subnetwork
or subnet.

Dec 2019 Internetworking 35

Subnet Mask

• The subnet mask is the 32-bit number that the router uses to cover
up the network address to show which bits are being used to identify
the subnet.
• i.e it indicates how much of the IP address bits represents the
network or subnet
• The function of a subnet mask is to determine whether an IP
address exists on the local network or whether it must be routed
outside the local network. That is:-
• The subnet masking process is used to identify & extract the
network part of the address
• i.e. it is applied (logical AND) to an address to determine
whether the address is on the local Network.
• If it is not, the process of routing it to an outside network begins.

Dec 2019 Internetworking 36

……..

• There are default standard subnet masks for Class A, B

and C addresses:
• Class A subnet mask is 255.0.0.0
• Class B subnet mask is 255.255.0.0
• Class C subnet mask is 255.255.255.0
• For example, consider a class A IP address
123.123.123.1. using the default class A subnet mask,
find the network ID?
Decimal Binary
IP Address 123.123.123.1 01111011. 01111011.01111011.00000001
Subnet Mask 255.0.0.0 11111111.00000000. 00000000. 00000000
Network ID 123.0.0.0 01111011.00000000. 00000000. 00000000

Dec 2019 Internetworking 37

More on Subnetting

• Is manipulation of the subnet mask to get more network

numbers
• To get the number of network address per subnet
• Borrow n bits from the total of H host address bits.
• 2n become total number of subnet
• To calculate number of host address per subnet
• Use the remaining H-n = h host bits
Note: h represents host bits
• 2h – 2 become total number of hosts
Where – 2 shows one address for subnet and one
address for broadcast.

Dec 2019 Internetworking 38

•………..
Bits available for creating subnets
• These are the number of bits that can be borrowed from
the host
Bits Available for Creating Subnets
Address Class Host Bits Bits Available for Subnet
A 24 22
B 16 14
C 8 6

Dec 2019 Internetworking 39

 Subnetting Example

Let us assume we have a Class C address : N.N.N.H

110nnnnn.nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn.hhhhhhhh
110nnnnn.nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn.nnhhhhhh (blue (nn) bits are borrowed bits red
(hhhhhh) bits are remaining host bits.)
• No. of Subnet
=2n, let n = 2 (n is borrowed bits)
=22 = 4
=4 Subnets
• No. of Host per subnet
= 2h – 2 (h remaining host bits)
=26 – 2 = (-2 is for subnet ID & Broadcast ID on the subnet)
=64 – 2
=62 Hosts/Subnet
Dec 2019 Internetworking 40
Example -1
• Given: 192.168.1.0
• 192.168.1.00000000 (all zero shows host bits)
• Suppose two bits are borrowed.
• Then, 192.168.1.11000000 (green(11) bits are borrowed bits)
• No. of Subnet = 2n, n =2 (n is borrowed bits)
= 22 = 4  4 Subnets
• No. of Host per subnet
= 2h – 2 (h remaining host bits)
= 26 – 2 = (-2 is for Network ID & Broadcast ID)
= 62 Hosts/Subnet
• Subnet/Network ranges
Network ID Valid Host Ranges Broadca
ID
192.168.1.0 192.168.1.1 - 192.168.1.62 192.168.1.63
192.168.1.64 192.168.1.65 - 192.168.1.126 192.168.1.127
192.168.1.128 192.168.1.129 - 192.168.1.190 192.168.1.191
192.168.1.192
Dec 2019 192.168.1.193 - 192.168.1.254
Internetworking 192.168.1.255
41
Example 2

• Given:
• Network address 192.168.10.0 and Subnet mask
255.255.255.192. Subnet the network.
• Solution
• How many subnets?
• Since the last octet in the subnet mask is 192, it has 2 bits in
11000000. This gives us: 22 = 4 subnets
• How many hosts per subnet?
• We have six host bits 11000000, so the #hosts = 26-2 = 62
• What are the valid subnets?
• Block size = 256 – 192 = 64
• Starting at zero and counting in the block size, the subnets are 0,
64, 128, and 192.

Dec 2019 Internetworking 42

Example cont’d…
• What is the broadcast address for each subnet?
• The number right before the value of the next subnet is all host bits
turned on and equals the broadcast address. For the zero subnet, the
next subnet is 64, so the broadcast address for the zero subnet is 63.
• What are the valid hosts?
• These are the numbers between the subnet and broadcast address.
• The easiest way to find the hosts is to write out the subnet address
and the broadcast address. This way, the valid hosts are obvious.
• The following table shows the four subnets, the valid host
ranges of each, and the broadcast address of each subnet

Subnet Subnet ID Valid Host Range Broadcast ID

0 192.168.10.0 192.168.10.1 - 192.168.10.62 192.168.10.63
64 192.168.10.64 192.168.10.65 - 192.168.10.126 192.168.10.127
128 192.168.10.128 192.168.10.129 - 192.168.10.190 192.168.10.191
192 192.168.10.192 192.168.10.193 - 192.168.10.254 192.168.10.255
Dec 2019 Internetworking 43
Practice Example #2C: 255.255.255.128 (/25)
Network 192.168.10.0

 How many subnets? Since 128 is 1 bit on (10000000), the answer

would be 21= 2.
 How many hosts per subnet? We have 7 host bits off (10000000), so
the equation would be 27– 2 = 126 hosts.
 What are the valid subnets? 256 – 128 = 128. Remember, we’ll start
at zero and count in our block size, so our subnets are 0, 128.
 What’s the broadcast address for each subnet? The number right
before the value of the next subnet is all host bits turned on and
equals the broadcast address. For the zero subnet, the next subnet is
128, so the broadcast of the 0 subnet is 127.
 What are the valid hosts? These are the numbers between the subnet
and broadcast address
.2 .3 .130 .131

192.168.10.0 192.168.10.128
Dec 2019 .1
Internetworking
.129
44
 Example 2d
255.255.255.224 (/27)
Network 192.168.10.0
 How many subnets? 224 is 11100000, so our equation would be 23 = 8.
 How many hosts? 25– 2 = 30.
 What are the valid subnets? 256 – 224 = 32. We just start at zero and
count to the subnet mask value in blocks (increments) of 32: 0, 32, 64,
96, 128, 160, 192, and 224.
 What’s the broadcast address for each subnet (always the number right
before the next subnet)?
 What are the valid hosts (the numbers between the subnet number and
the broadcast address)?
Subnet Address 192.168.10.0 192.168.10.32 ……. 192.168.10.192 192.168.10.224

First Host 192.168.10.1 192.168.10.33 192.168.10.193 192.168.10.225

Last Host 192.168.10.30 192.168.10.62 192.168.10.222 192.168.10.254

Broadcast Address 192.168.10.31 192.168.10.63 192.168.10.223 192.168.10.255

Dec 2019 Internetworking 45

Practice Example #2E: 255.255.128.0 (/17)
Network 172.16.0.0

 Subnets? 21 = 2
 Hosts? 215– 2 = 32,766 (7 bits in the third octet, and 8 in the fourth)
 Valid subnets? 256 – 128 = 128. 0, 128. Remember that subnetting is
performed in the third octet, so the subnet numbers are really 0.0 and
128.0, as shown in the next table
 Broadcast address for each subnet?
 Valid hosts?

Subnet 172.16.0.0 128.0

First Host 0.1 128.1
Last Host 127.254 255.254
Broadcast 127.255 255.255

Dec 2019 Internetworking 46

Practical Example 1
Network Address 192.168.187.0
Borrow 3 bits = SNM 255.255.255.224

Subnets = (2^3) = 8 0, 32, 64, 96, 128, 160, 192, 224

Hosts = 2^5 – 2 = 30

But which is
Waste of Space

Dec 2019 Internetworking 47

Practical Example
Let the address provided for this organization is 193.1.1.0
Then subnet the address for each hosts….

Dec 2019 Internetworking 48

Network address 172.19.0.0 with /16 network mask

Dec 2019 Internetworking 49

Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR)

• A classless address is one that does not follow the classfull rules.
• Network not identified based on default classes
• Router uses prefix (/) to describe how many bits are network bits
• More efficient use of IPv4 address space
• In CIDR, we could have a class with 16 mask, 24 mask or any.
Clas Range CIDR Possible NW Possible Host From To
s -Mask per NW
A 1-126 /8 27 =128 224 -2 = 0.0.0.0 126.255.255.255
16,777,214
B 128-191 /16 214 =16,348 216 -2 = 65,534 128.0.0.0 191.255.255.255
C 192-223 /24 221 28 - 2 = 254 192.0.0.0 223.255.255.255
=2,097,152
D 224-239 N/A - - 224.0.0.0 239.255.255.255
E 240-255 N/A - - 240.0.0.0 255.255.255.255

Dec 2019 Internetworking 50

CIDR and Route Summarization
• Route summarization (done by CIDR): used to reduce
routing table size by aggregating routes to multiple
networks into one supernet

Dec 2019 Internetworking 51

Variable length subnet mask (VLSM)

• The process of sub-netting a subnet to fit our needs

• Different subnet masks within the same network address space
• Used for efficient and scalable addressing
When to use VLSM
Networking design addressing scheme that allows:
• Growth
• Doesn’t waste addresses on point-to-point links

• VLSM addressing applied instead results in:

• Variable sized subnets
• Take 1 of the 3 subnets and subnet it again
• Example 192.168.187.224 (last subnet)
• Apply a 30 bit mask (225.225.225.252)
• Creates a possible 8 ranges of addresses with 30
bits
• Best solution for point-to-point links – use 2 host
addresses instead of 30
VLSM, Subnet Mask

• Consider where subnet 172.16.14.0/24 has been

divided into smaller subnets
• Subnets with one mask are identified with /27
• One unused /27 subnet is subdivided into three /30
subnets
What is VLSM and why is it used?
• The purpose of VLSM is to alleviate the shortage of IP addresses

• VLSM allows:
• More than one subnet mask within the same NW
• Or . . . Multiple SNMasks with ONE IP Address
• Use of long mask on networks with few hosts
• Use of short mask on networks with many hosts

• In order to use VLSM, the routing protocol must support it.

• Cisco routers with the following routing protocols support VLSM:
• OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
• IS-IS (Integrated Intermediate System to Intermediate System)
• EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol)
• RIP v2
• Static Routing
Example 1. Variable Length Subnet Mask(VLSM)
Subnet with requirements shown?

Dec 2019 Internetworking 56

Variable Length Subnet Mask(VLSM)
Subnet with requirements shown?

With Fixed subnet

5 subnets needed

Can be assigned as follows:

 netA: 204.15.5.0/27 host address range 1 to 30

 netB: 204.15.5.32/27 host address range 33 to 62

 netC: 204.15.5.64/27 host address range 65 to 94

 netD: 204.15.5.96/27 host address range 97 to 126

 netE:
Dec 2019 204.15.5.128/27 host address range 129 to 158
Internetworking 57
Variable Length Subnet Mask(VLSM)
Subnet with requirements shown?
With Fixed subnet

Dec 2019 Internetworking 58

Variable Length Subnet Mask(VLSM)
Subnet with requirements shown?

Given the same network and requirements as in Sample

Exercise 1 develop a subnetting scheme using VLSM, given:
◦ netA: must support 14 hosts
◦ netB: must support 28 hosts
◦ netC: must support 2 hosts
◦ netD: must support 7 hosts
◦ netE: must support 28 host
With VLSM
Determine what mask allows the required number of hosts.
◦ netA: requires a /28 (255.255.255.240) mask to support 14 hosts
◦ netB: requires a /27 (255.255.255.224) mask to support 28 hosts
◦ netC: requires a /30 (255.255.255.252) mask to support 2 hosts
◦ netD: requires a /28 (255.255.255.240) mask to support 7 hosts
◦ netE: requires a /27 (255.255.255.224) mask to support 28 hosts

Dec 2019 Internetworking 59

Variable Length Subnet Mask(VLSM)
Subnet with requirements shown?

With VLSM
 The easiest way to assign the subnets is to assign the largest first. For
example, you can assign in this manner:

◦ netB: 204.15.5.0/27 host address range 1 to 30

◦ netE: 204.15.5.32/27 host address range 33 to 62

◦ netA: 204.15.5.64/28 host address range 65 to 78

◦ netD: 204.15.5.80/28 host address range 81 to 94

◦ netC: 204.15.5.96/30 host address range 97 to 98

Dec 2019 Internetworking 60
Variable Length Subnet Mask(VLSM)
Subnet with requirements shown?

With VLSM

Dec 2019 Internetworking 61

Example 2 VLSM

For example, an administrator have 192.168.1.0/24 network

•the administrator has three different departments with different number
of hosts. Sales department has 100 computers, Purchase department
has 50 computers, Accounts has 25 computers and Management has 5
computers. In CIDR, the subnets are of fixed size. Using the same
methodology the administrator cannot fulfill all the requirements of the
network.

Dec 2019 Internetworking 62

Step - 1
Make a list of Subnets possible.

Step - 2
Sort the requirements of IPs in descending order (Highest to
Lowest).
Sales 100

Purchase 50

Accounts 25

Management 5

Dec 2019 Internetworking 63

 Step - 3
• Allocate the highest range of IPs to the highest requirement, so let's assign
192.168.1.0 /25 (255.255.255.128) to the Sales department. This IP subnet
with Network number 192.168.1.0 has 126 valid Host IP addresses which
satisfy the requirement of the Sales department. The subnet mask used for
this subnet has 10000000 as the last octet.

Step - 4
Allocate the next highest range, so let's assign 192.168.1.128 /26
(255.255.255.192) to the Purchase department. This IP subnet with
Network number 192.168.1.128 has 62 valid Host IP Addresses
which can be easily assigned to all the PCs of the Purchase
department. The subnet mask used has 11000000 in the last octet.

Step - 5
Allocate the next highest range, i.e. Accounts. The requirement of 25
IPs can be fulfilled with 192.168.1.192 /27 (255.255.255.224) IP
subnet, which contains 30 valid host IPs. The network number of
Accounts department will be 192.168.1.192. The last octet of subnet
mask is 11100000.
Dec 2019 Internetworking 64
• Step - 6
• Allocate the next highest range to Management. The Management department
contains only 5 computers. The subnet 192.168.1.224 /29 with the Mask
255.255.255.248 has exactly 6 valid host IP addresses. So this can be assigned to
Management. The last octet of the subnet mask will contain 11111000.
• By using VLSM, the administrator can subnet the IP subnet in such a way that least
number of IP addresses are wasted. Even after assigning IPs to every department,
the administrator, in this example, is still left with plenty of IP addresses which was
not possible if he has used CIDR.
Net ID CI Mask b SM BA
D o
R r
Sales 192.168.1.0 /25 255.255.255.128 1 126 100

Purch 192.168.1.128 /26 255.255.255.192 2 62 50

Acct 192.168.1.192 /27 255.255.255.224 3 30 25

Mgt 192.168.1.224 /29 255.255.255.248 5 6 5

Dec 2019 Internetworking 65

CIDR

• Classless Inter domain Routing

• Improve address space utilization
• Routing scalability in the Internet
• For example, if an ISP owns network 172.16.0.0/16, then
the ISP can offer 172.16.1.0/24, 172.16.2.0/24,and so on
to customers. Yet, when advertising to other providers, the
ISP only needs to advertise 172.16.0.0/16

Dec 2019 Internetworking 66

Summary Examples-1
• Change the following IP addresses from binary notation
to dotted-decimal notation.
a. 10000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111
c. 11100111 11011011 10001011 01101111
d. 11111001 10011011 11111011 00001111
Solution
We replace each group of 8 bits with its equivalent
decimal number and add dots for separation:
a. 129.11.11.239 b. 193.131.27.255
c. 231.219.139.111 d. 249.155.251.15

Dec 2019 Internetworking 67

Example-2

• Change the following IP addresses from dotted-decimal

notation to binary notation.
a. 111.56.45.78 b. 221.34.7.82
c. 241.8.56.12 d. 75.45.34.78

Solution
We replace each decimal number with its binary equivalent:
•01101111 00111000 00101101 01001110
•11011101 00100010 00000111 01010010
•11110001 00001000 00111000 00001100
•01001011 00101101 00100010 01001110

Dec 2019 Internetworking 68

Example-3

Find the error, if any, in the following IP addresses:

•a. 111.56.045.78 b. 221.34.7.8.20
•c. 75.45.301.14 d. 11100010.23.14.67

Solution
a.There are no leading zeroes in dotted-decimal notation (045).
b.We may not have more than four numbers in an IP address.
c.In dotted-decimal notation, each number is less than or equal to 255;
301 is outside this range.
d.A mixture of binary notation and dotted-decimal notation is not
allowed.

Dec 2019 Internetworking 69

Exercise 1: Fill in the information

1. 192.168.1.3
Class ___________________ Default Mask:________________
Network: _________________ Broadcast: __________________
Hosts: _________________ through ___________________

2. 1.12.100.31
Class _____________________ Default
Mask:_________________
Network: _________________ Broadcast: ________________
Hosts: _________________ through ____________________

2. 172.30.77.5
Class ___________________ Default Mask:________________
Network: ________________ Broadcast: __________________
Hosts: _________________ through ___________________

Dec 2019 Internetworking 70

Ans…

1. 192.168.1.3 Class C Default Mask: 255.255.255.0

Network: 192.168.1.0 Broadcast: 192.168.1.255
Hosts: 192.168.1.1 through 192.168.1.254

2. 1.12.100.31 Class A Default Mask: 255.0.0.0

Network: 1.0.0.0 Broadcast: 1.255.255.255
Hosts: 1.0.0.1 through 1.255.255.254

3. 172.30.77.5 Class B Default Mask: 255.255.0.0

Network: 172.30.0.0 Broadcast: 172.30.255.255
Hosts: 172.30.0.1. through 172.30.255.254

Dec 2019 Internetworking 71

Exercise 2

• Given the IP address 199.199.199.172 with a subnet

mask of 255.255.255.192. Answer the following
questions:
a. How many bits were borrowed?
b. How many subnets have been created?
i. List the network address of each subnet?
ii. List the broadcast address of each subnet?
c. How many host address per subnet?
i. What are the valid host address ranges of each subnet?
d. What is the subnet address of the network containing the given
IP address?
e. What is the broadcast address of the network containing the
given IP address?

Dec 2019 Internetworking 72

Exercise – 3: VLSM

• You have a network that is divided into the subnetwork address

172.16.32.0/20
• This subnetwork is further divided into the VLSM address
172.16.32.0/26
• Calculate the subnet addresses that can be used in the network

Dec 2019 Internetworking 73

Exercise 4
1. Suppose you are given the IP address 195.5.5.0/24 and wish to connect
Arba Minch and Shashemene to Addis Ababa. Create an IP addressing
scheme that will meet the following requirements:
a. Each subnet must support between 25 and 30 devices.
b. You must have enough subnets to address each network.
c. Use VLSM to create appropriate subnet for the PPP links, so that
you save wasted IPs
I. What is the subnet mask for this network?
II. What is the broadcast address of each subnet?
III. On the diagram, assign a subnet address to each network and give
each router interface an appropriate IP address for that network.

Dec 2019 Internetworking 74

Rules

• Each interface on the router has to be assigned an IP address

and a subnet mask
• Each router’s interface has to be on a separate network
• i.e. we can’t have two different interfaces on the same network
• Router’s interfaces usually take the first available IP address on
a network
• NOTE: Switches are layer 2 devices and do not need an IP
address to work
• Each PC on the network must be configured with the correct IP
properties:
• A PC on an Ethernet need an IP address and a subnet mask to be able
to communicate with other hosts on the same network (LAN)
• A PC needs a default gateway (in addition to IP and subnet mask) to be
able to communicate with other hosts on a different network
• PCs and their default gateway must belong to the same network

Dec 2019 Internetworking 75

Long Term Solution: IPv6

• IPv6, or IPng (IP – the Next Generation) uses a 128-bit

address space, yielding
340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,456
possible addresses.
• IPv6 has been slow to arrive
• IPv6 requires new software; IT staffs must be retrained
• IPv6 will most likely coexist with IPv4 for years to come.
• Read
• Forouzan 4th edition, PP 596 – 605
• Forouzan 5th edition chapter 22
• William Stalling 8th edition pp 586 – 595
Dec 2019 Internetworking 76
Network Applications
 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
 Domain Name Servers (DNS)
 Web (WWW)
 Electronic mail (e-mail)
 FTP
 TFTP
 Telnet
 SNMP

Dec 2019 Internetworking 77

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
(DHCP)

• DHCP is used by workstations (hosts) to get initial

configuration information, such as an IP address, subnet
mask, and default gateway upon bootup.
• DHCP takes care of automatically assignment of different
IP address for a host that moves to a different IP subnet
• It allows the host to choose an IP address in the correct IP
subnet and tells what IP-address to use

Dec 2019 Internetworking 78

• The device broadcasts a request
• If it had an IP address before, asks for the same one
again
• Then the DHCP server on local network responds
telling it which address to use (or ignores it, or tells it
go away)
• Lease time telling it how long that IP will be valid for
• Device requests renewal of lease after some elapsed
time
• Generally, DHCP eases the administrative burden of
manually configuring each host with an IP address.

Dec 2019 Internetworking 79

Domain Name Servers (DNS)

• Domain Name Servers (DNS) are the Internet's

equivalent of a phone book. They maintain a directory of
domain names and translate them to Internet Protocol
(IP) addresses. This is necessary because, although
domain names are easy for people to remember,
computers or machines, access websites based on IP
addresses.

Dec 2019 Internetworking 80

• Information from all the domain name servers across the
Internet are gathered together and housed at the Central
Registry.
• Host companies and Internet Service Providers interact with
the Central Registry on a regular schedule to get updated
DNS information.
• When you type in a web address, e.g., www.google.com,
your Internet Service Provider views the DNS associated
with the domain name, translates it into a machine friendly
IP address; like 8.8.8.8
• Then, it directs your Internet connection to the correct
website.

Dec 2019 Internetworking 81

Web
• It is a client-server software application in which the
client (or user interface) runs in a web browser.
• World Wide Web (WWW): It is based on hypertext (text
which contains links to other texts), which allows users to
select a particular word which may be linked to other
documents and, in this way, a big logical link of the word
data across the documents can be defined.
• The concept of hypertext offers the advantage that we
can get more information about a particular topic or
subject just by clicking on it.

Dec 2019 Internetworking 82

• When that particular topic or subject is chosen, we
can read the entire information contained therein.
• The documents can also be linked to other
documents which may be on the same topic or
subject but with a different author or source.
• If we look at articles published in technical
journals, we usually find footnotes.

Dec 2019 Internetworking 83

• With the hypertext system, we can select a footnote
number in the body of an article and be transported to an
appropriate citation in the notes section. Further, the
citation can be linked to the cited article and so on.
• Therefore, we can create an infinite link of citations which
can also be backtracked in the same sequence in which it
was formed initially.

Dec 2019 Internetworking 84

Electronic mail (e-mail)

• E-mail service is asynchronous in nature and requires an

address of the particular user on the computer. The
Internet address and the domains are defined by an
Internet administrator, while the e-mail address uses the
symbol @ (at) to separate the user and host addresses.
• For example, the e-mail address example@gmail.com
indicates the user id as example, who is logged in to a
computer host with a domain of gmail.com

Dec 2019 Internetworking 85

• There are three regions of a mail message:
header, body, and signature (optional).
• The body includes the actual text of the message.
• The signature includes the user’s name, address,
phone number, fax, e-mail, etc.
• The header includes a few lines of information
before the message.

Dec 2019 Internetworking 86