Sheet Metal Forming Process Chapter 7

Sheet metal forming process Chapter
7
7
Introduction
• Sheet metal forming operations produce a wide range of
consumer and industrial products, such as metal desks,
appliances, aircraft fuselages, car bodies, and kitchen utensils.
• Sheet-metal forming also called press working, press forming
or stamping, is among the most important of metalworking
processes, dating back to as early as 5000 B.C., when
household utensils, jewelry, and other objects were made by
hammering and stamping metals such as gold, silver, and
copper.
• Compared to those made by casting or forging, sheet metal
parts offer the advantages of light weight and shape
versatility.
7
Introduction
• Sheet forming, unlike bulk deformation processes,
involves work pieces with a high ratio of surface area to
thickness such as cookie sheet hubcaps.
• Sheet metal is produced by rolling process.
• If the sheet is thin, it is generally coiled after rolling, if
thick, it is available as flat sheets or plates, which may
have been decoiled and flattened prior to forming them.
• In a typical forming operation, a blank of suitable
dimensions is first cut from a large sheet, this usually
done by a shearing process.
Characteristics of Sheet-Metal Forming
Processes
TABLE 16.1
Process Characteristics
Roll forming Long parts with constant complex cross-sections; good surface finish; high production rates; high
tooling costs.
Stretch forming Large parts with shallow contours; suitable for low-quantity production; high labor costs; tooling
and equipment costs depend on part size.
Drawing Shallow or deep parts with relatively simple shapes; high production rates; high tooling and
equipment costs.
Stamping Includes a variety of operations, such as punching, blanking, embossing, bending, flanging, and
coining; simple or complex shapes formed at high production rates; tooling and equipment costs
can be high, but labor cost is low.
Rubber forming Drawing and embossing of simple or complex shapes; sheet surface protected by rubber
membranes; flexibility of operation; low tooling costs.
Spinning Small or large axisymmetric parts; good surface finish; low tooling costs, but labor costs can be
high unless operations are automated.
Superplastic Complex shapes, fine detail and close tolerances; forming times are long, hence production rates are
forming low; parts not suitable for high-temperature use.
Peen forming Shallow contours on large sheets; flexibility of operation; equipment costs can be high; process is
also used for straightening parts.
Explosive Very large sheets with relatively complex shapes, although usually axisymmetric; low tooling costs,
forming but high labor cost; suitable for low-quantity production; long cycle times.
Magnetic-pulse Shallow forming, bulging, and embossing operations on relatively low-strength sheets; most
forming suitable for tubular shapes; high production rates; requires special tooling.
Sheet Metal - Characteristics and
formability
• Forming of sheet metals is generally carried out by
tensile forces, as otherwise the application of external
compressive forces could lead to buckling, folding and
wrinkling of the sheet.
• In some bulk deformation processes, the thickness of
the work piece is changed to produce part, whereas in
sheet –forming process, any change in thickness is
typically due to stretching of the sheet under tensile
stresses.
• So sever thickness decreases in sheet metal forming
should generally be avoided as they can lead to
necking and failure, as occurs in a tension test.
Sheet Metal - Characteristics and
formability
The mechanics of all sheet forming basically consists
of stretching and bending, certain parameters
significantly influence the overall operation. These
are:
1. Elongation
2. Yield point elongation
3. Anisotropy
4. Grain size
5. Residual stress
6. Springback
7. wrinkling
Processes
Elongation :
• When a specimen is subjected to tension it is first
undergoes uniform elongation up to the UTS, after
which it begins to neck. This elongation is then
followed by further nonuniform elongation until
the specimen fractures.
• Because the sheet will be stretched during forming
process, high uniform elongation is thus desirable
for good formability,
Processes
Elongation :
• For a material that has a true-stress-true-strain curve
represented by the equation:
• The strain at which necking begins is given by ϵ = n.

• Thus, the true uniform strain in a simple stretching operation
is numerically equal to the strain-hardening exponent, n.
• A high value of n indicates large uniform elongation and thus
is desirable for sheet forming.
Characteristics of Sheet-Metal Forming Processes
Yield point elongation
 Low carbon steels exhibit a behavior
which is called yield point elongation,
involving upper and lower yield
points.
 This yield point elongation is usually
on the order of a few percent.
 In yield point elongation, a material
yields at a given location; subsequent
yielding occurs in adjacent areas
where the lower yield point is
unchanged.
 When the overall elongation reaches
the yield point elongation, the entire
specimen will undergo a uniform
deformation
Processes
• This behavior of low carbon steel
produces Lueder’s band (Also
called stretcher strain marks or
worms) on the sheet.
• These bands consist of elongated
depressions on the surface of the
sheet and can be objectionable
in the final product because of its
uneven surface appearance.
• These bands also can cause
difficulties in subsequent coating
and painting operation.
Processes

• Stretcher strain marks can be
observed on the curved
bottom of the steel cans for
common household
products.
• Aluminum cans don’t exhibit
this behavior because
aluminum alloys do not
demonstrate yield point
elongation.
Processes

• The magnitude of the yield point elongation
depends on:
1. The strain rate (with higher rates, the
elongation generally increase).
2. The grain size of the sheet metal (as the grain
size decreases, the yield point elongation
increases.
Processes

• The usual method of a voiding these marks is to eliminate
or to reduce yield-point elongation by reducing the
thickness of the sheet 0.5 to 1.5% by cold rolling , a
process known as temper rolling or skin rolling (preferred
grain orientation , or directionality, of sheet metal).
• Because of the strain aging. The yield-point elongation
reappears after a few days at room temperature. Thus,
the sheet metal should be formed within a certain period
of time (such as from one to three weeks for rimmed
steel) to avoid the reappearance of stretcher strain.
Processes
Temper rolling
Skin rolling
Processes
Anisotropy
 Another important factor influencing sheet-metal forming is
anisotropy (preferred grain orientation) , or directionality, of
sheet metal.
 Anisotropy is acquired during the thermo mechanical processing
history of the sheet.
 There are two types of anisotropy:
1. Crystallographic anisotropy (preferred grain orientation)
2. Mechanical fibering ( alignment of impurities, inclusions and
voids.
 These behaviors are particularly important in deep drawing of
sheet metals.
Processes
Grain size
 Grain size of the sheet metal is important for two reasons:
1. Because of its effect on mechanical properties of the material
(larger size grain is different from smaller size grain) how???
[smaller grain size exhibit more formability than larger grain
size]
2. Because of its effect on surface appearance of the formed part
 The coarser the grain, the rougher the surface appears (orange
peel)
 An ASTM grain size of No. 7 is typically preferred for general
sheet-metal forming
Processes
Residual stresses
Residual stresses can develop in sheet-metal parts
because of the nonuniform deformation that the
sheet undergoes during forming . (Residual stresses
are stresses that remain within a part after it has
been deformed plastically non uniformly and all
external forces have been removed).
Disturbing the equilibrium of residual stresses, such
as by bending or stretching of it, the part may distort.
We should remove residual stresses prior to forming.
Processes
Springback
• Because they are generally thin and are subjected to
relatively small strain during forming, sheet-metal parts
are likely to experience considerable springback
• Because all materials have a finite modulus of elasticity,
plastic deformation is always followed by elastic
recovery upon removal of the load. In bending, this
recovery is known as springback.
• This effect is particularly significant in bending and other
forming operations where the bend radius-to-sheet-
thickness ratio is high, such as in automotive body parts.
Processes
Wrinkling
 In the sheet metal forming the metal is typically subjected
to tensile stresses, the method of forming may be that
compressive stresses are developed in the plane of the
sheet.
 An example in sheet metal forming is the wrinkling of the
flange in deep drawing because of the circumferential
compressive stresses that develop in the flange.
 Other terms used to describe this phenomena are folding
and collapsing.
Processes
Wrinkling
• The tendency for wrinkling in sheet metals increases
with:
1. Decreasing thickness
2. Nonuniformty of the thickness of the sheet
3. Increasing length or surface area of the sheet that is
not constrained or supported.
4. Lubricants that are trapped or are not distributed
evenly at the die-sheet metal interfaces can also
contribute to the initiation of wrinkling
Processes
Coating sheet
• Sheet metals, especially steel, are precoated with a variety of
the organic coating, films and laminate.
• Coatings are used primarily for appearance as well as for
corrosion resistance.
• Coatings are applied at thicknesses generally range from
0.0025 to 0.2mm.
• Coatings are available with wide range of properties, such as
flexibility, durability, color, and gloss, resistance to abrasion
and chemicals.
• Zinc is used extensively as a coating on sheet steel (galvanized
steel by hot dipping) to protect it from corrosion, particularly
in the automotive industry
Sheet Metal Processes
1. Cutting
– Shearing to separate large sheets; or cut part perimeters or
make holes in sheets
2. Bending
– Straining sheet around a straight axis
3. Drawing
– Forming of sheet into convex or concave shapes
Advantages of Sheet Metal Parts

• High strength
• Good dimensional accuracy
• Good surface finish
• Relatively low cost
Cutting Operations
Shearing
Typically used to cut large
sheets into smaller sections
for subsequent operations
side view front view

shearing
• The shearing process involves cutting sheet metal, as well as
plates, bars, and tubing of various cross section, into individual
pieces by subjecting it to shear stress, typically using a punch and
a die, similar to action of paper punch.
• The punch and die may be of any shape, such as circular or
straight blades, similar to a pair of scissors.
• Important variables in the shearing process are:
1. The punch force.
2. The speed of the punch
3. The edge condition of the sheet.
4. The punch and die materials.
5. The punch-die clearance.
6. Lubrication.
Shearing (Cutting)
punch begins to push
just before the punch into work, causing
contacts work plastic deformation
C, is the clearance
fracture is initiated at
both cutting edges
punch penetrates
into work causing a
smooth cut surface
Shearing (Cutting)
 The overall features of a typical sheared edge for the
two sheared surfaces are illustrated
Note that the edges are neither smooth nor

perpendicular to the plane of sheet.
Shearing (Cutting)
The clearance, c, is the major parameter that
determine the shape and quality of the shear edges
Shearing process
• As the clearance increases, the sheared edges become rougher and
the deformation zone becomes larger. The material is pulled into
clearance area into the die rather than be sheared, and the sheared
edges become more and more round. In fact, if the clearance is too
large, the sheet metal is bent and thus subjected to tensile stresses
Effect of the clearance, c, between punch and die on the deformation zone in shearing. As
the clearance increases, the material tends to be pulled into the die rather than be sheared
Shearing process
 As clearance decreases, the deformation zone is subjected to high
shear strain. The width of this zone depends on the rate of
shearing, that is, the punch speed.
 With increasing punch speed, the heat generated by plastic
deformation is confined to smaller zone, and consequently the
sheared surface is smoother
Shearing process
 In practices, clearances usually range between 2 and 8% of the sheet
thickness.
 In general, clearances are smaller for softer materials, and they are
higher as the sheet thickness increases.
 As indicated in the figure below, the sheared edges can undergo
sever cold working, which, in turn, can adversely affect the
formability of the sheet during subsequent operation.
Shearing process
• Observation of the shearing mechanism reveals that shearing
usually starts with the formation of cracks on both the top and
bottom edges of the sheet (at A and B). These crack eventually
meet, resulting in complete separation and a rough fracture surface
Shearing process rough and smooth, shiny edges
 The smooth, shiny, and burnished surfaces are from the contact and
rubbing of the sheared edges against the punch and the die as shown.
1. The burnished surface is in the lower region, because this region is the
section that rubs against the die wall.
2. The burnished surfaces (on the sheet it self ) is on the upper region and
results from rubbing against the punch.
 The ratio of the burnished-to-rough areas on the sheared edge increases
with increasing ductility of the sheet metal and decreasing with increasing
sheet thickness and clearance.
Shearing process
 Note also the formation of burr. Burr height increases with:
1. Increasing clearance
2. Increasing ductility
3. Tooling with dull edges is also a major factor in burr formation.
Shearing process
Small clearance
Higher cutting force
– ………………
More punch and die wear
– ………………….
– …………………….
Better edges
Large clearance
Rougher edges
– ………………………
Larger deformation zone
– ……………………..
Larger burrs
– ………………………
As clearance increases,
the material tends to be
pulled into the die rather
than be sheared.
Clearance:
The clearance determines the shape and quality of the sheared edge, so
the control of the clearance is important!
Burr:
Burr length increases with clearance & ductility of metal.
Tools with dull edges create burrs.
Clearance in Sheet Metal Cutting
• Recommended clearance can be calculated by:
c = at
where c = clearance; a = clearance allowance; and t = stock thickness.
• Allowance a is determined according to type of metal.
Clearance Allowance for Three Metal Groups a

1100S and 5052S aluminum alloys, all tempers 0.045
2024ST and 6061ST aluminum alloys; brass, soft cold rolled steel, 0.060
soft stainless steel
Cold rolled steel, half hard; stainless steel, half hard and full hard 0.075
Low “c” for soft materials

High “c” for hard materials
Punch force
F=S*t*L
Where:
S= Shear strength
t= Sheet thickness
L= Length of cutting edge
 If shear strength is not known, cutting force can be estimated as:
• An approximate empirical formula for estimating the maximum

punch force, is given buy:
Fmax  0.7(UTS )tL
• UTS: is the ultimate tensile strength of sheet metal.
• t : is the thickness.
• L : is the total length of the sheared edge. For round hole of
diameter D, L=πD
Example
• Estimate the force required in punching a 25

mm diameter hole through a 1.8 mm thick
5052 –O aluminum sheet at room
temperature. UTS is 190 Mpa.
• Solution : Force = 1.8793 * 10^6 N
Shearing operations
Various operations that are based on the shearing process.
First it should be noted that in punching, the slug is discarded
(the sheared slug is scrap, or may be used for some other
purpose).
In blanking, the slug is the part it self, and the rest is scrap.
Slug
Shearing operations
• The following processes are common shearing operation
1. die cutting
• Die cutting typically consists of various operations where
the parts produced have various uses, particularly in
their assembly with other components of a product
Shearing operations
1. Die cutting
a) Perforating : that is punching a number of holes in the sheet
metal
b) Parting : shearing the sheet into two or more pieces, usually
when the adjacent blanks do not have a matching contour
c) Notching : removing pieces or various shape from the edges.
d) Slitting and lancing : leaving a tab on the sheet without
removing any material
Lancing
Shearing operations
2. fine blanking
 Very smooth and square edges can be produced by fine blanking.
 The basic die design involves a V-shaped stringer that locks the sheet
tightly in place and prevents the type of distortion of the material
(Prevents distortion at sheared edges).
 Fine blanking involves clearances on the order of 1% of the sheet
thickness, as compared with as much as 8% in ordinary shearing
operations. Very tight (<1%) clearances), Therefore tight tolerances
.possible• Therefore tight tolerances possible
Shearing operations
2. fine blanking
 The thickness of the sheet may typically range from 0.5 to 13 mm
 A suitable sheet hardness is typically in the range of 50-90 HRB
Shearing operations
3. slitting
• Slitting is a shearing operation carried out with a pair of circular
blades, similar to those on a can opener. The blades follow either
a straight line or curved path.
• There are two types of slitting equipment:
a) In the driven type, the blades are powered
b) In the pull-through type, the strip is pulled through idling blades
Slitting operations
 Straight slitting is commonly used in cutting wide sheet, as delivered
by rolling mill, into narrower strips for further processing into
individual parts.
Shearing operations
4. Nibbling
• In this operation, a machine called a nibbler moves a straight punch

up and down rapidly into a die. The sheet is fed through the punch-
die gap, making a number of overlapping holes.
• An intricate notches can thus produced using standard punches.
• The process is economical for small production runs since no
especial dies are required.
Scrap in shearing
• The a mount of scrap produced in shearing
operation can be significantly, being as high as 30%
of the original sheet for large pieces.
• It is an important factor in manufacturing costs
• Scrap can be reduced significantly by proper
arrangement of shapes on the sheet to be cut,
called layout and nesting.
• Computer-aided design techniques are now
available for minimizing scrap.
Shearing dies
 Because the formability of a sheared part can be directly
influenced by the quality of its sheared edges, clearance control is
important.
 In practice, clearances usually ranged between 2 and 8%.
 Generally the thicker the sheet, the larger is the clearance, to as
much as 10%, however, the smaller the clearance, the better is the
quality of the sheared edge.
 In a process called shaving, the extra material from a rough
sheared edge is trimmed by cutting
Shearing dies
Schematic illustration of shaving on a sheared edge.
(a) Shaving a sheared edge. (b) Shearing and shaving combined in one
punch stroke.
Punch and dies shape
 The area being sheared at any instant can be controlled by
beveling the punch and die surfaces
 The beveled geometry is particularly

suitable for shearing thick sheets because
1. it reduces the total shearing forces and
also
2. reduces the noise level during punching
Progressive dies
 Some parts requiring multiple operations such as punching and
blanking are made at high production rates using progressive dies.
 In which the coil strip is fed through the dies, and a different
operation is performed at the same station with each stroke of a
series of punches
Miscellaneous methods of cutting
sheet metal
1. The sheet or plate may be cut with a band saw uses a blade
consisting of a continuous band of metal with teeth along one edge
to cut various workpieces.
2. Oxyfuel-gas (flame) cutting : may be employed particularly for thick
plates, as widely used in shipping and heavy-construction industries
(it can cut thicknesses from 0.5mm to 2,500mm).
3. Friction sawing : involves the use of blade, that rubs against the
sheet or plate at high surface speed. ( a type of band sawing that
uses high speed to generate heat to soften the metal in front of the
blade)
4. Water-jet cutting : are effective operations on sheet metals as well
as on nonmetallic materials
5. Laser beam cutting : is now widely used, with computer controlled
equipment, for high productivity, cons
Oxyfuel-gas (flame) cutting
• A mixture of oxygen and the fuel gas is
used to preheat the metal to its
'ignition' temperature which, for steel, is
700°C - 900°C (bright red heat) but well
below its melting point.
• A jet of pure oxygen is then directed
into the preheated area instigating a
vigorous exothermic chemical reaction
between the oxygen and the metal to
form iron oxide or slag.
• The oxygen jet blows away the slag
enabling the jet to pierce through the
material and continue to cut through
the material.
Friction sawing
Friction sawing :a type of band sawing that uses high speed to
generate heat to soften the metal in front of the blade)
Water-jet cutting
• Water jet cutting: is an industrial tool capable of cutting
a wide variety of materials using a very high-pressure jet
of water, or a mixture of water and an abrasive
substance. The term abrasivejet refers specifically to
the use of a mixture of water and abrasive to cut hard
materials such as metal or granite, while the terms pure
waterjet and water-only cutting refer to waterjet
cutting without the use of added abrasives, often used
for softer materials such as wood or rubber.
• It is the preferred method when the materials being cut
are sensitive to the high temperatures generated by
other methods.
• Most high-pressure pumps at this time, though,
operated around 500–800 psi (3–6 MPa), some
reaching 1600 psi (11 MPa).
Laser beam cutting
• The laser beam is focused for cutting. All
its power is bundled onto one point,
usually with a diameter of less that half a
millimeter. Where the focused beam
strikes the workpiece, the metal
immediately begins to melt. It even
partly burns or evaporates.
• The highly focused, high-density energy
melts and evaporates small portions of
the workpiece in a controlled manner.
 Laser converts electrical energy into a
highly coherent light beam with the
property of :
 Monochromatic (single wave length)
This property allow laser light to be focused, using optical lenses, onto a very small
spot with resulting high power densities.
Reflectivity and thermal conductivity of the workpiece are important factors in LBC.
The lower these quantities, the more efficient is the process
Tailor – welded blanks: Laser Welding
In sheet metal forming operations, the blank is typically
supplied in one piece, usually cut from a large sheet, and
has a uniform thickness.
An important technology in sheet-metal forming,
particularly in the automotive industry, involves laser
butt welding of two or more pieces of sheet of different
thicknesses and shapes (Tailor -welded blanks, or TWB).
The welded sheet is subsequently formed into a final
shape buy using any of the processes of sheet metal
forming.
Tailor – welded blanks: Laser Welding
• Advantages:
1. Productivity is increased.
2. The need for subsequent spot welding of the product is reduced
or eliminated
3. Scrap is reduced
4. Dimensional control is improved
• It should be noted,
that because the
sheet thicknesses
involved are small,
proper alignment
of the sheet prior
to welding is
essential
Bending of sheet and plate
• One of the most common metal working is

bending, a process that is used not only to form
parts such as flanges, and corrugations, but also
to impart stiffness (by increasing the moment of
inertia). Example a flat strip of metal is much less
rigid than one is formed into a V cross section
Bending
 Straining sheet metal around a straight axis to take a permanent
bend.
A + A’ = 180˚
Bending of sheet metal
Metal on inside of neutral plane is compressed, while metal on
outside of neutral plane is stretched.
Bending of sheet and plate
• Bend allowance : is the length of the neutral axis in the bend area and
is used to determine the blank length for a bent part. It depends on
1. Bend radius
2. Bend angle
• an approximate formula for
the bend allowance. Lb, is given
Lb   ( R  kt )
α is the bend angle in radians,
R is the bend radius,
k is a constant, values usually range from
0.33 for R<2t to 0.5 for R>2t
t is the sheet thickness.
Minimum bend radius
 The outer fibers of a part being bent
are subjected tension, and the inner
fibers to compression
 Theoretically, Engineering Strains at 1
eo  ei 
the outer and inner fibers are equal in (2 R / t )  1
magnitude and they are:
 Due to shifting of the neutral axis
toward the inner surfaces, the length
of bend L, is smaller in the outer region
than in the inner region ( bending a
rectangular eraser).
 Consequently, the outer and inner
strains are different, with the
differences increasing with decreasing
R/t ratio. (decreasing bend radius)
Minimum bend radius
1
eo  ei 
(2 R / t )  1
• As the ratio R/t decreases, the tensile strain at the outer fiber
increases, and the material may crack after a certain strain is
reached.
• The bend radius, R, at which crack appears on the outer surface of
the bend is called the minimum bend radius.
• The minimum bend radius to which a part can be bent safely is
normally expressed in terms of its thickness, such as 2t, 3t, 4t.
• For example, a bend radius of 3t indicates that the smallest radius to
which the sheet can be bent without cracking is three times its
thickness
Minimum Bend Radius for Various
Materials at Room Temperature
The minimum bend radii for various materials have been determined
experimentally; some typical results are give in the table below
Minimum bend radius
 Studies have been conducted to establish a relationship between the
minimum R/t ratio and a particular mechanical property of the material.
 Based on the assumption that : The true strain at cracking on

the outer fiber in bending is equal to the true strain at fracture,
εf , of the material in a simple tension test.
 the true strain at fracture, εf , of the material in a simple tension test.
A 100  Where r is the percent reduction of area of

 f  ln( o )  ln( ) the sheet in a tension test.
Af 100  r
 The true strain at cracking on the outer fiber in bending
1 Rt
 o  ln(1  eo )  ln(1  )  ln( )
T (2 R / t )  1 R  (t / 2)
 By equating the above expressions Minimum R/t= (50/r) -1
Minimum Bend Radius and
Ductility
Minimum R/t= (50/r) -1
• There is a relationship between

R/t and ductility, expressed as
the tensile reduction in area, r
• Not that as R/t ratio approaches
zero (complete bendability; that
is the material can be folded over
itself, like apiece of paper) at a
tensile reduction of area of 50
• The lower the ductility (smaller
reduction in area) the larger the
R/t [large bend of radius]
Factor affecting bendability
 Bendability depends on the edge condition of the sheet being bent.
1. Rough edges, because rough edges have various locations of stress
concentration. Bendability decreases as edges roughness increases.
 Removal of the rough edges by shaving, or machining, greatly improves
the resistance to edge cracking during bending
2. The amount of cold working the edges undergo during shearing is
another important factor. Removal of the cold worked regions such as
by annealing, greatly improves the resistance to edge cracking during
bending.
3. Another important factor in edge cracking is the amount and
shape of inclusions in the sheet metal. Inclusions in the form of
stringers are more detrimental than globular-shaped inclusions;
consequently, anisotropy of the sheet is also important in
bendability, cold rolling of the sheets results in anisotropy
because of the alignment of the impurities, inclusions, and voids
(mechanical fibering).
Stringers inclusions globular-shaped inclusions.

Forming by Bending
• Advantages
– Easy to perform
– Simple, low cost tooling
– Fairly precise
• Disadvantages
– Limited in the shapes it can produce
– Spring back difficult to estimate
– Some material difficult to bend without tearing
or necking
Springback
• Because all materials have a
finite modulus of elasticity,
plastic deformation is always
followed by elastic recovery
upon removal of the load. In
bending, this recovery is known
as springback.
Springback
a) The final bend radius is larger than radius to which it is bent.
b) The final bend angle after springback is smaller than the angle to
which it is bent
• This phenomena can easily be observed and verified by bending a
piece of wire or short strip metal.
• This phenomena can easily

be observed and verified by
bending a piece of wire.
• Note that springback will
not occur only in bending
flat sheets or plate, but also
in bending bars and rods
Springback
 A quantity characterizing springback is the springback factor , Ks:
 Because the bend allowance is the same before and after bending, the
bend allowance is as follow for pure bending:
t t
Bend allowance = ( Ri  ) i  ( R f  ) f  For the case
2 2 that k=0.5
 From this relation Ks is defined as :
 f (2 Ri / t )  1  Where Ri and Rf
Ks   are the initial and
 i (2 R f / t )  1
final bend radii
 From the above expression that Ks depend on the ratio R/t
 The condition of Ks =1 indicates that there is no springback,

and ks =0 indicates that there is a complete elastic recovery.
Springback
 The amount of elastic recovery
depends on the stress level and
the modulus of elasticity, E, of
the material.
 Thus, elastic recovery increases
with the stress level and with
decreasing elastic modulus
 based on this observation an
approximate formula has been
developed to estimate springback
as:
Ri RiY 3 RiY
 4( )  3( ) 1
Rf Et Et
Y is the yield stress of the material.

Compensation for Springback
1. Overbending : can be achieved by rotary
bending technique in which the upper die has
a cylindrical rockers and is free to rotate.
2. Coining : is a accomplished by subjecting a
high localized compressive stresses between
the tip of the punch and the die surface.
3. Because springback decreases as yield stress
decreases. Bending at elevated temperatures
will decrease the yield stress of the material.
Decreasing the yield stress of the material
decreases the springback. (recall the effect of
elevated temperature on the yield point)
4. Stretch bending : in which the part is subjected
to tension while being bent, consequently
decreasing springback
Force in bending
 Bending force can be estimated by assuming that the process is that
of the simple bending of a rectangular beam.
 Thus bending force is a function of the material’s strength, length and
thickness of the part (L and t). Excluding friction, the general
expression for the maximum bending force, Fmax, is
UTS: the ultimate tensile stress of the material.
W: part width in direction of bend axis
L: length of the part.
t: thickness of the part
 Where the factor k include various factors, including friction:

 K values for V-dies ( 1.2 - 1.33 ), for wiping dies ( 0.3 - 0.34 )
Common bending operations
1.Press-brake forming : sheet metal or plate can be bent with simple
fixtures, using a press.
• Parts that are long (7m or more) and relatively narrow are usually bent
in a press brake.
• This machine uses long dies in a mechanical or hydraulic press is
suitable for small production runs
2. beading : in this operation, the edge of the sheet is bent into
cavity of a die.
Beading improves
1. The appearance of the part and
2. Eliminates exposed sharp edges, which may be a safety hazard.
3. Also the bead impart stiffness to the part by virtue of the higher
moment of inertia of the edges
a) Bead forming with a single die. (b)-(d) Bead forming with two dies in a press brake.
3. Flanging : is a process of
bending the edges of the
sheet metals, typically to
90o, for the purpose of :
1. imparting stiffness,
2. appearance,
3. or for assembly with
other component
4. Hemming.
• In the hemming process (also
called flattening), the edge of
the sheet is folded over itself
• Advantages:
1. Hemming increase the
stiffness of the part
2. Improves its appearance
3. Eliminate sharp edges
5. Seaming.
• Involves joining two edges of
sheet metal pieces by hemming
Tube bending
• The oldest and simplest method of bending a tube or a pipe is to
pack the inside with loose particles (typically sand) and bend it in
a suitable fixture.
• The packing prevents the tube from buckling inward.
• Tubes also can be bulged with various flexible internal mandrels.
Stretch Forming
Sheet metal is stretched and simultaneously bent to achieve shape change
(2) die is pressed into the work with

force Fdie, causing it to be stretched and
(1) start of process bent. F = stretching force
 Sheet is gripped by two jaws at its edges.

 Form block is slowly raised by the ram to deform sheet above its yield point.
 The sheet is strained plastically to the required final shape
 Controlling the mount of stretching is important to avoid tearing.
 The shape is produced entirely by tensile stretching so the limiting strain is

that at necking.
Miscellaneous forming process
 Stretch forming
• Forming by using tensile forces to stretch the material over a tool or form
block.
• In this operation, the sheet metal is clamped around its edges and
stretched over a die.
• In most stretch-forming operations, the blank is clamped along its
narrower edges and stretched longwise.
Pre-Stretching
Loading
Release
Wrapping
 Stretch forming
• Used most extensively in the aircraft industry to
produce parts of large radius of curvature.
(normally for uniform cross section). Also for
automobile door panels.
• Required materials with appreciable ductility,
Aluminum skins for Boeing 767 and 757 fuselages,
for example, are made by stretch forming.
Stretch Forming: equipment

Stretch Forming with Reconfigurable Tool

Stretch Forming: Products
Cowlings
Courtesy
of:www.evanscomposites.com
Stretch forming
Force Required in Stretch Forming
where
F = stretching force
F  LtYf L = length of sheet in direction perpendicular to
stretching
t = instantaneous stock thickness
Yf = flow stress of work metal
Example
Calculate the force required to stretch form a wing span from a sheet of
2219 aluminum having a cross-sectional area of 13x305 mm, a strength
coefficient strength of 250 MPa and strain hardening exponent 0.3.
 Bulging
 The basic process of bulging
involves placing a tubular part in a
split female die and expanding it
with the rubber or polyurethane
plug.
 The punch is the retracted, the
plug returns to its original shape,
and the part is removed by
opening the split die.
 Typical product made by this
process includes: bellows,coffee
and water pitchers.
 Polyurethane plugs are very
resistant to abrasive, sharp edges
and wear Bulged tube
 Bulging
Manufacturing of Bellows
 Embossing
 This process consists of forming a number of shallow shapes (numbers,
letters) or designs on sheet metal.
 The part may be embossed with male and female dies
 The female die is replaced with a rubber pad.
 The pressure is applied is typically on the order of 10 Mpa
 The outer surface of the sheet is protected from damage or scratches
because it is not in contact with hard metal surface during forming
Figure 16.38 Examples of the bending and the embossing of sheet metal with a metal punch
and with a flexible pad serving as the female die. Source:
 Hydroforming (fluid forming process)
 In this process, one of the dies in a die set is made of flexible
material such as rubber membrane or polyurethane
 In hydroforming, or fluid forming process, the pressure applied over
a flexible membrane with a maximum pressure reaching 100 Mpa.
 Deeper draws are obtained than in conventional deep drawing, the
reason being that the pressure around the rubber membrane
forces the part being formed against the punch
Hydroforming (fluid forming process)
 Advantages:
1. The capability to form complex shapes.
2. Flexibility and ease of operation.
3. The avoidance of damage to the surfaces of the sheet.
4. Low die wear.
5. Low tooling cost.
 spinning
Spinning involves the forming of axisymmetric
parts over a rotating mandrel, using rigid tools
or rollers. The equipment used is similar to lath
with various special features
Three types of spinning:
1. Conventional spinning
2. Shear spinning
3. Tube spinning
Spinning
• Spinnability: the maximum reduction in
thickness of the material to which a part can
be subjected by spinning without fracture.
Conventional spinning
 In conventional spinning, a circular blank of a flat sheet metal is held
against a rotating mandrel while a rigid tool deforms and shapes it
over the mandrel.
 The tool may be actuated either manually or by a hydraulic
mechanism.
 The operation involves a sequences of passes and requires
considerable skill.
 The process is suitable for conical and curvilinear shapes, which
would otherwise be difficult to form by other methods.
 Most spinning is performed at room temperature
 For thick parts or metals with low ductility or high strength require
spinning at elevated temperature.
 Part diameter may range up to 6 m in diameter
Conventional spinning
Shear spinning
 In shear spinning, also called power spinning or flow turning, an
axisymmetric conical or curvilinear shape is generated in a manner
whereby the diameter of the parts remains constant.
 Parts typically made by this process include rocket-motor casings
and missile nose cones.
 The operation is completed in a relatively short time
 If the operation is carried out at room temperature, the spun part has
relatively a higher yield strength than original material, but lower
ductility.
 Parts typically up to about 3 m in diameter can be spun to close
dimensional tolerances.
Shear spinning
Tube spinning
 In tube spinning, tubes or pipes are reduced in thickness by
spinning them on cylindrical mandrels, using rollers.
 The operation may be carried out externally or internally.
 The reduction in wall thickness results in a longer tube,
because of volume constancy.
Thickness is
reduced
 High‑Energy‑Rate Forming (HERF)
HERF describes sheet-metal forming process

that use chemical, electrical, or magnetic
sources of energy.
They are called high-energy-rate processes
because of the high amount of energy is
released in a very short time.
 Processes to form metals using large
amounts of energy over a very short time.
(1) Explosive Forming
 Use of explosive charge to form sheet (or plate) metal into a die
cavity
 Explosive charge causes a shock wave whose energy is transmitted
to force part into cavity.
 Applications: large parts, typical of aerospace industry.
setup explosive is shock wave

detonated forms part

1. In this process, the sheet is clamped over a die
2. The air in the die is evacuated
3. Then the whole assembly is lowered into a tank filled with water
4. An explosive charge is the placed at a certain distance from the
sheet surface, and detonated
 The rapid conversion of the explosive into gas generates a shock wave.
 The pressure of this wave is sufficiently high to force the metal into die cavity
explosive is shock wave

setup detonated forms part

Detonation speeds are typically 6700m/s, and the
speed at which the sheet metal is formed is to be
estimated on the order of 30 to 200m/s.
Safety is an important aspect in explosive forming.
Suitable for low-quantity production runs of lager
parts (steel plates 25 mm thick and 3.6 m in
diameter have been formed by this method)
(2) Electro Hydraulic Forming:

 Electrical energy is accumulated in
large capacitors and then released
to the electrodes.
 The source of energy in this process
is the spark from two electrodes.
 The rapid discharge of this energy
through the electrodes generates a
shock wave; which is strong
enough to form the part. Electro Hydraulic Forming
 This process is Similar to explosive “Electric Discharge forming”
forming except:
1. That it utilizes a lower level of
energy, therefore, its safer.
2. And is used for smaller workpiece
(3) Electromagnetic Forming:

 The energy stored in a capacitor
bank is discharged rapidly through
a magnetic coil, produces two
magnetic fields, which in turn
produces forces.
 The forces produced by the two
magnetic fields oppose each other; Electromagnetic Forming
thus there is a repelling force “Magnetic Pulse forming”
between the coil and the tube.
 These high forces generated
collapse the tube over the inner
side of the die - Presently the most widely used HERF process.
- Applications: tubular parts (i.e. swaging)
 Superplasticity
Superplasticity:
 Conventional metals elongate 10 to 30%.
 Ultra-fine grained materials reach 100-3000%.
 Used to form complex parts at high temperature.
 Large deformations possible, something that would
normally fracture parts, but large deformation + low
strain rate = long time to perform deformation.
 Superplasticity
 Superplasticity is the ability of a material to withstand very large amounts
of uniform elongation without the occurrence of necking prior to fracture.
 The superplastic behavior of some very

fine grained alloys ( 10-15µm), where
very large elongations (up to 2000%)
are obtained at certain temperatures
and low strain rates
 These alloys can be formed into Superplastic deformation of an Al alloy
complex shapes by employing

traditional metal working or polymer-
processing techniques
These alloys are : Zinc alloys, Titanium alloys (Ti-Al-V alloys), Aluminum alloys (Al-
Zn-Mg and Al-Cu), Inconel 718 (Ni-Cr alloy), and stainless steels (Fe-Cr-Ni alloy ) can
be made superplastic.
Superplasticity
 Important elements in superplastic properties to attain such deformation
  C m
1. Low strain rate (~3*10-4/s) (so it is not
practical). where
2. High temperature (above 0.4Tm). C = strength constant
m = strain‑rate sensitivity
3. Small grain size (less than 20μm for metallic exponent (0.3-0.85 for
alloys). superplastic materials).
 In the past, Superplastic forming was available at relatively low strain
rates, typically about 1% per min. At this strain rate, about 1 hr is
needed to form an advanced structural component; too long to be
economically effective.
 Superplasticity at higher strain rates, however, can be expected to
stimulate broad commercial interest in superplastic forming.
 Example: a strain rate higher than 100% per minute is considered
economically practical. Such a strain rate would allow the forming of
relatively complex structures in less than three minutes, including
set-up time.
Superplastic Forming Process
 The SPF process uses

superplastic materials to form
very complex sheet metal parts.
 Dies are heated in a press
(900°C for
titanium alloys) and inert gas
pressure is applied at a controlled
rate.
 SPF can produce parts that are
impossible to form using
conventional methods.
 Benefits...
 The high ductility and relatively low strength of superplastic alloys
present the following advantages:
1. Lower Tooling cost:

 because of low strength of the material at forming temperatures, and
hence lower strength of tooling
2. Producing complex shape :

 the ability to form complex shape in one piece, with fine detail, close
dimensional tolerance, and eliminating secondary operation.
3. Material saving ;
 because of the good formability of superplastic materials, thus, no
waste in the material.
4. Little or no residual stresses in the formed parts

A superplastically formed Courtesy of www.accudyneeng.com

Al-Li alloy component An Al-alloy component
 Elimination of unnecessary joints, fasteners, welding or
adhesives.
 Reduction of subsequent machining.
 Minimization of materials waste.
 An integrated aluminum structure, for example, traditionally

manufactured by welding four pieces of metal, can be
manufactured in a single operation through superplastic forming.
Superplastic Forming with Diffusion Bonding
 An important aspect of superplastic forming
is the ability to fabricate sheet-metal
structures by combining diffusion bonding.
 SPF/DB parts are produced by joining
several sheets in a specific pattern and then
superplastically expanding the sheets to
produce an integrally-stiffened structure
[Typical structures in which flat sheets are
diffusion bonded and then formed into
desired structures]
 These structures are relatively thin and high
stiffness-to-weight ratios; consequently, they
are particularly important in aerospace
applications
Courtesy of www.spfintl.com
.
Superplastic Forming with Diffusion Bonding
Deep drawing
 Deep drawing first developed in
1700s, is an important sheet-
metal forming process.
 Typical parts produced by this
method include beverage cans,
pots and pans, containers of all
shapes and sizes, and
automobile body panels.
 The process, is generally called
deep drawing (meaning forms
deep part), the basic operation
also produces parts with
moderate depths.
Deep drawing
 The basic parameters in deep
drawing a cylindrical cup are:
 A circular sheet blank with a
diameter Do and thickness to
is placed over a die opening
with a corner radius Rd. the
blank is held in the place with
blankholder under a certain
force. A punch with a
diameter Dp and a corner
radius Rp moves downward
and pushes the blank into die
cavity, thus forming a cup.
Deep Drawing
Steps in Deep Drawing:

1) Initial contact
2) Bending
3) Straightening
4) Friction and compression
5) Final shape
Deep drawing
• The significant variables in deep drawing:
1. Properties of the sheet metal
2. Ratio of the blank diameter to the punch diameter
3. Sheet thickness
4. Clearance between the punch and the die
5. Corner radii of the punch and die
6. Friction at the punch, die, and workpiece interfaces
7. Blankholder force
8. Speed of the punch
Deep Drawing - Variables
Cup Flange:
- Compression and
- Friction Zone
Deformation of an
element in the flange
Die Radius: re ction

di
- Bending and Flow
- Friction Zone Cup Wall:
- Fracture Zone*
- No Friction
Deformation of an
Punch Radius:
element in the
- Bending and
Cup Bottom: wall
- Friction Zone
- Near Zero Strain *Failure may result from
- No Friction
thinning of the cup wall.
Deep Drawing - Variables and Defects
During drawing, when the blank
moves into the die, compressive
circumferential stresses are induced in
the flange.
– This causes flange to wrinkle.
- Using beads to control contraction in
the flange and the movement of the
material into die cavity
– Eg: try forcing a circular sheet of paper
into a drinking glass.
Effect of die and punch radii on deep drawing:
Die radius too small Punch radius too small

Deep Drawing - Mechanism -Variables
 At an intermediate stage during the deep drawing operation, the

work piece is subjected to state of stress indicated in the figure
below
• On element A (flange) in the blank, the radial tensile

stresses is due to the blank being pulled into the cavity.
• The compressive stresses is due to the pressure applied
by the blank holder.
Deep Drawing - Mechanism -Variables
 With a free body diagram of the blank along its diameter, it can be
shown that the radial tensile stresses lead to compressive hoop
stresses on element A (flange). Under this state of stress, element A
(flange) contracts in the compressive hoop stress and elongates in
the radial direction.
 It should be noted that it is the compressive hoop stresses in the
flange that tend to cause the flange to wrinkle during drawing, thus
it is necessary to provide a suitable balnkholder force
Deep Drawing - Variables and Defects
 The punch transmits the drawing force, F, through the walls of the cup
and to the flange that is being drawing into die cavity.
 The cup wall, which is already formed, is subjected principally to
longitudinal tensile stresses as shown in the figure.
 The tensile hoop stress on the element shown in the figure is caused by
the cup being held tightly on the punch because of its contraction
under the longitudinal tensile stresses in the cup wall (cup of coffee
and plastic bag)
 And because the cup is constrained by the
rigid punch, the element shown in the
figure dose not undergo any width
change, but elongates in the longitudinal
direction.
Ironing
Ironing to achieve a more uniform wall thickness in a drawn cylindrical cup.
 If the thickness of the sheet as it enters the die cavity is more than
the clearance between the punch and die, it has to be reduced by
a deformation called ironing.
 By controlling the clearance, C, ironing produce a cup with a
constant wall thickness.
 Because of the volume constancy, an ironed cup will be longer
than a cup produced with a large clearance.
 Thus, ironing can correct earing that occurs in deep drawing.
Shapes other than Cylindrical Cups
• Square or rectangular boxes (as
in sinks)
• Stepped cups
• Cones
• Cups with spherical rather than
flat bases
• Irregular curved forms (as in
automobile body panels)
Very important commercial process.
Each of these shapes

presents its own
unique technical
problems in drawing
Methods for Reducing the Diameter of Drawn Cups
Methods to reduce diameter of drawn cups:

• Redrawing: For parts with high DR, they require more than one drawing.
• Reverse Redrawing: Metal is bent in opposite direction.
Db
DR 
Dp
Redrawing
Reverse Redrawing
Methods for Reducing the Diameter of Drawn Cups
Conventional Redrawing
Steps in
Manufacturing an
Aluminum Can
Deep Drawing - Defects
Yield-point elongation in a sheet- Lueder’s bands in a low-carbon steel sheet:
metal specimen.
‘Orange peel’-grainy surface appearance. -Produces lueder’s bands (also called

-Due to overly large grains or uneven flow. stretch-strain marks).
-Exhibited by low carbon steels.
-Coarser grains, the rougher the appearance.
-These marks can be eliminated by
-ASTM grain size of No. 7 or finer is
reducing thickness of sheet from 0.5%
preferred for sheet metal forming. to 1.5 % by cold rolling process.
Defects in Drawing
(a) Wrinkling in the flange occurs due to compressive buckling in the
circumferential direction (blank holding force should be sufficient to prevent
buckling from occurring).
(b) Wrinkling in the wall takes place when a wrinkled flange is drawn into the
cup or if the clearance is very large, resulting in a large suspended (unsupported)
region.
(c) Tearing occurs because of high tensile stresses that cause thinning and failure
of the metal in the cup wall. Tearing can also occur in a drawing process if the die
has a sharp corner radius.
(d) Earring occurs when the material is anisotropic, i.e. has varying properties in
different directions.
(e) Surface scratches can be seen on the drawn part if the punch and die are not
smooth or if the lubrication of the process is poor.
Defects in drawing
Analysis of Drawing
Guidelines to Assess Feasibility (3):
Most easily defined for cylindrical shape:
(1) Drawing ratio: DR  Db feasible if DR < 2

Dp
Db  D p
(2) Reduction r  feasible if r < 0.5
Db
(3) Thickness-to-diameter ratio = t/Db Desirable for t/Db ratio
to be greater than 1%
As t/Db decreases, tendency for wrinkling increases
Draw Force:
 Db 
F  D p t  TS    0.7 
D 
 p 
Deep drawability (limiting drawing ratio)
 An important parameter in drawing is the limiting drawing ratio
(LDR), defined as, the maximum ratio of the blank diameter to
punch diameter that the blank can be drawn without failure .
 Deep Drawability is expressed by the limiting drawing ratio (LDR)
where
𝐷 𝑜
LDR = = Maximum blank diameter /punch diameter
𝐷𝑝
 By observing the movement of the material into the die cavity, we
note that the material must be capable of undergoing a reduction
in width (being reduced in diameter), yet it should resist thinning
under longitudinal tensile stresses in the cup wall
 Failure generally occur by thinning of the cup wall under high
longitudinal tensile stresses
Anisotropy
Metal sheets are produced by rolling, the properties in the rolling
direction, across the sheet width and through the sheet thickness are
different, therefore the sheet metal is anisotropic, that is the properties
are different in different directions.
Important in Deep Drawing.
Normal Anisotropy (R): Ratio to compare strengths in the plane and
thickness direction (or ratio of reducing in the width & thinning in
thickness direction).[ tensile test]
The sheet is rolled and test specimen

can be cut in different directions to the
rolling.
Tensile test specimens are pulled
beyond its yield strength and the strains
in the width (εw-in the plane of the
sheet) & thickness (εt-normal to the
plane of the sheet) are measured.
Courtesy of J. Beddoes, 1999
Normal Anisotropy
 The ratio of width strain to thickness strain is defined
as:
wo
ln( )
w wf
R 
 t ln( to )
tf
 Where:
 R is known as the normal anisotropy of the sheet (strain ratio)
 Subscripts o and f refer to the original and final dimension,
respectively
 R=1 indicates that the width and thickness strains are equal to
each other; that is the material is isortopic
Normal Anisotropy
 Because errors in the measurement of small thicknesses are
possible, the previous equation is modified, based on volume
constancy wo
ln( )
wf
R
wf l f
ln( )
wo lo
 Where:
 l refers to length of the sheet specimen
 The final length and width in test specimen are usually
measured at an elongation of 15% to 20% and for materials
wilth lower ductility
Normal Anisotropy
 Determines thinning behavior (strain ratio)
of sheet metals during stretching; important
in deep-drawing operations.
 In drawing, we want the sheet to resist
thinning while its under tensile load so we
can do a deeper draw.
 Normal anisotropy: R = w / t
– Remember: l + w + t = 0 Strains on a tensile-test specimen
– Simple tension, R =1.0-sheet is removed from a piece of sheet
isotropic (width & thickness strains are metal. These strains are used in
equal) determining the normal and
 Tensile tests determine normal anisotropy planar anisotropy of the sheet
(from initial & final dimensions). metal.
R = w/t = ln (wo/wf)/ln (to/tf)
εw :The strain in the width (εw-in
the plane of the sheet)
R>1, metal is more resistant to thinning εt The strain in the thickness (εt-
:
(good thickness strength).
normal to the plane of the sheet)
R<1, metal is less resistant to thinning.
Average Normal Anisotropy
R varies with rolling direction, so an average R-value (R avg) is determined for a sheet metal.
 Sheets generally have planar anisotropy, Thus the R value of

specimen cut from a rolled sheet will depend on its
orientation with respect to rolling direction of the sheet.
 An average R value is then calculated
Ravg = (R0 + 2R45 +R90)/4
Normal
anisotropy (R)
R 0o
R 45o
Rolling R 90o
Direction
Average Normal Anisotropy Vs Limiting Drawing Ratio
Drawability can also be expressed in terms of a limiting draw ratio.
The relationship between

average normal anisotropy
and the limiting drawing ratio
for various sheet metals.
HCP
FCC BCC
HCP High average
high c/a ratio Low c/a ratio
R-values are
ideally suited for
sheet forming.
Limiting Drawing Ratio (LDR) = D0/Dp
Where,
D0: Maximum Blank diameter
Dp: Punch Diameter
Average Normal Anisotropy, Ravg
Typical Range of Average Normal Anisotropy, Ravg, for
Various Sheet Metals
Ravg
Zinc alloys 0.4–0.6
Hot-rolled steel 0.8–1.0
Cold-rolled rimmed steel 1.0–1.4
Cold-rolled aluminum-killed steel 1.4–1.8
Aluminum alloys 0.6–0.8
Copper and brass 0.6–0.9
Titanium alloys (a) 3.0–5.0
Stainless steels 0.9–1.2
High-strength low-alloy steels 0.9–1.2
Planar Anisotropy (Earing Tendency)
 Planar anistropy Is the variation in normal anisotropy (R) in the plane of the sheet.
 The sheet metal may be stronger in one direction then in other directions.
Normal
Planar Anisotropy
anisotropy (R)
R 0o
R = (R0 -2R45 +R90)/2
R 45o
Rolling R 90o ΔR is the difference between the

Direction
average of the R values in th 0o
and 90o directions to rolling and
the R value at 45o
 Planar anisotropy causes ears to form in drawn
cups, When R=0, no ears form
 The height of the ears increases as R increases
 Number of ears: 4, 6, or 8
 For better deep drawability: Ravg and R
 Alloying elements and rolling reduction affect
these values.
Planar Anisotropy (Earing Tendency)
Calculated R-values for various directions:

Annealed steel:
Rolling direction (0˚) R=1.3
45 degree R=1.0 Normal anisotropy (R)
90 degree R=1.4
Ravg=1.2 R 0o
R =0.35
R 45o
Rolling R 90o
Direction
Maximum punch force
 The punch force, F, supplies the work required in deep drawing.
 As in other deformation process, the work consists of ideal work of
deformation, redundant work and friction work. Because of many
variables involved in this operation and because deep drawing is
not a steady-state process, accurately calculating the punch force
can be difficult.
 Several expressions have been developed; one simple and
approximate formula for maximum punch force is
Fmax  D pT (UTS )[( Do / D p )  0.7]

 The above equation dose not specifically include parameters such as
friction, the corner radii of the punch and die or blankholder force;
however, this empirical formula makes approximate provisions for
these factors.
Formability of sheet metals
 Sheet metal formability is generally defined as the
ability of a sheet to undergo the desired shape change
without failure such as necking and tearing.
 Three factors have a major influence on formability:
1. Properties of the sheet metal as discussed before
2. Friction and lubrication at various interfaces in the
operation
3. Characteristics of the equipment, tools, and dies
used
Formability of sheet metals
 Several techniques have been developed to test the
formability of sheet metals, including the ability to
predict formability by modeling the particular forming
operation
1. Cupping test
2. Tension test
3. Bulge test
4. Forming-limit diagrams
Cupping test
 The earliest tests developed to predict formability of sheet metal
were cupping tests, namely, the Erichsen tests
1. In the Erichesn test, a sheet-metal specimen is clamped over a flat die
with a circular opening and a load of 1000 kg
2. A 20 mm diameter steel ball is then hydraulically pressed into the sheet
until a crack appears on the specimen
3. The distance d, in mm, is the Erichsen number
The greater the value of d the greater is the formability
 Simple to perform.
 Approximate indicator of formability.
 Do not simulate exact conditions of
actual operations, WHY?
Because the stretching under the ball is
axisymmetric, they do not at all simulate
the exact conditions of actual forming
Erichsen test operations
d = Erichsen number
Cupping test
 In this test, a circular blank is clamped at its periphery and is
bulged by hydraulic pressure, thus replacing the punch.
 The operation is pure biaxial stretching, and no friction is
involved, as would be the case in using a punch.
 The bulge limit (depth penetrated prior to failure) is a
measure of formability
Bulge-test results on steel sheets of various widths.

The specimen farthest left is subjected to, basically, simple tension.
The specimen farthest right is subjected to equal biaxial stretching.
Forming Limit Diagrams
Procedure:
 Blank sheet is marked with a grid of circles (2.5-5mm).
 The blank is then stretched over a punch, until the grid
pattern deforms where necking and tearing occur.
 The deformed circles are measured in the failed region,
that is the major strain, and miner strain are obtained:
that is after stretching, the original circle has
Example: deformed into ellipse shape
Before punch stretch test:  typically 10 data points taken.
Original circle diameter: 4mm  A series of tests on a certain metal produces the FLD.
After punch stretch test:

Major ellipse axis : 5mm
Minor ellipse axis :3.2mm
Major Strain: (5-4)/4 * 100 = 25%

Minor strain: (3.2-4)/4 * 100 = -20%
Major Strain and Minor Strain
• During stretching in sheet metal,

volume is constant:
 l + w + t = 0
• Major strain always larger than
minor strain
Although the major strain is always positive (because forming sheet metal takes
place by stretching in at least one direction), the minor strain may be either
positive [strain occur in the transvers direction greater than the original] or
negative or shrinking [strain occur in the transvers direction smaller than the
original] or zero [ No strain occur in the transvers direction ]in the transverse
direction
If the surface area of ellipse after stretching is larger than the original circle, we know
the thickness of the sheet has changed, its thinner due to stretching.
Forming Limit Diagrams
After sheet metal deformation,
ε1 Major strain +ε1
the major and minor axes of the
circles on the grid pattern are
ε2 Miner strain ε2=0
used to determine the coordinates
on the forming limit diagram.
because the
minor planar +ε1
strain is zero
#1 +ε2
#4
+ε1 #2 #3
-ε2
Courtesy of Roy A. Lindberg, 1983
When normal isotropy R=1 ( that is, the width and thickness strains
are equal. ϵw = -05. ϵl )
Tension Tests
The most basic and common test used to evaluate formability.
It determines important properties of the sheet metal such as:
- total elongation of the sheet specimen at fracture.
- strain hardening exponent, n.
- the normal anisotropy (R) and
- the planar anisotropy (delta R).

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Sheet metal forming process Chapter

• The strain at which necking begins is given by ϵ = n.

Yield point elongation

Yield point elongation

Yield point elongation

Advantages of Sheet Metal Parts

side view front view

Note that the edges are neither smooth nor

• Allowance a is determined according to type of metal.

Clearance Allowance for Three Metal Groups a

Low “c” for soft materials

 If shear strength is not known, cutting force can be estimated as:

• An approximate empirical formula for estimating the maximum

• Estimate the force required in punching a 25

• In this operation, a machine called a nibbler moves a straight punch

 The beveled geometry is particularly

• One of the most common metal working is

 Based on the assumption that : The true strain at cracking on

A 100  Where r is the percent reduction of area of

 The true strain at cracking on the outer fiber in bending

• There is a relationship between

Stringers inclusions globular-shaped inclusions.

• This phenomena can easily

 From the above expression that Ks depend on the ratio R/t

 The condition of Ks =1 indicates that there is no springback,

Y is the yield stress of the material.

 Where the factor k include various factors, including friction:

(2) die is pressed into the work with

 Sheet is gripped by two jaws at its edges.

 The shape is produced entirely by tensile stretching so the limiting strain is

Stretch Forming with Reconfigurable Tool

HERF describes sheet-metal forming process

setup explosive is shock wave

(1) Explosive Forming

explosive is shock wave

(1) Explosive Forming

(2) Electro Hydraulic Forming:

(3) Electromagnetic Forming:

 The superplastic behavior of some very

complex shapes by employing

 The SPF process uses

1. Lower Tooling cost:

2. Producing complex shape :

4. Little or no residual stresses in the formed parts

A superplastically formed Courtesy of www.accudyneeng.com

 An integrated aluminum structure, for example, traditionally

Steps in Deep Drawing:

Die Radius: re ction

Effect of die and punch radii on deep drawing:

Die radius too small Punch radius too small

 At an intermediate stage during the deep drawing operation, the

• On element A (flange) in the blank, the radial tensile

Each of these shapes

Methods to reduce diameter of drawn cups:

‘Orange peel’-grainy surface appearance. -Produces lueder’s bands (also called

(1) Drawing ratio: DR  Db feasible if DR < 2

The sheet is rolled and test specimen

 Sheets generally have planar anisotropy, Thus the R value of

Ravg = (R0 + 2R45 +R90)/4