Steam Power Plant and Steam Generators (Boilers)

Steam Power Plant

• Steam power plants are producing about half of
the total power requirement in India.
• In a steam Power plant, thermal energy is used
to raise steam, that is used to run steam turbines
to produce mechanical energy.
• This mechanical energy is converted into
electrical energy in a generator.
• Steam power plants are suitable for large scale
production of electrical power.
 Selection of Site for Steam Power
Plant
• The factors to be considered while selecting a
site for a steam power plant are as follows-
1) Availability of fuel
2) Transportation
3) Availability of water
4) Ash Disposal
5) Nature of land
6) Space Area
1)Availability of fuel:

The site selected should have abundant sources

of fuel (generally coal, petroleum or natural gas).

A steam power plant using Coal as fuel needs

about 1,500 tones of coal for every 100 MW of
power produced.
2) Transportation:
Though having a plant at the fuel source does not
require transportation for fuel, it may be away from
the place of use.
This leads to high transmission costs and loss of
power, hence possible to locate a site for
economical power transmission and fuel
transmission.
Rope-ways or railway are the better choices of
transportation at the interior places.
Sea transportation is economical for plants and
fuel source near sea shores.
3) Availability of water:
A steam power plant requires high volumes of
water for use as feed water, ash handling and
mainly for condensing.
About 50 to 60 thousand tones of water per hour
is required for every 100 MW of power developed,
as cooling water and makeup water for the feed.
A good quality of drinking water is also essential for
the use of employees.
4) Ash Disposal:
• Generally the steam power plants produce ash
about 20 to 30% of fuel burnt.
• The ash to be disposed may be several
thousand tones a day.
• Hence the site selected should have provision
for proper disposal of ash.
5) Nature of land:
• The soil of the site selected should have a good

bearing capacity as it has to support huge

structures and dynamic forces in operating
conditions.
• A bearing capacity of 10 kgf/cm2 is essential to set

up a steam power plant.

6) Space Area:

Steam power plants need the maximum space

area all other power plants.

They require larger space areas for coal yards,

buildings, machinery & equipment, cooling
towers, ash disposal and for residential purpose.
About 500 acres of land is necessary for every
100 MW of power produced.
Layout of a Steam Power Plant
Essential components and systems of a
steam power plant-
1) Turbine Generator
2) Furnace Boiler
3) Fuel Handling System
4) Ash Handling System
5) Draught System
6) Condensing System
7) Water Cooling System
8) Lubrication System
1) Turbine Generator
• This is the central power system where electrical
energy is generated. In the turbine velocity and
pressure energy of the steam is converted into
kinetic energy, turbines are directly coupled to the
generators which develop electrical energy.
• The steam turbines used may be either impulse or
reaction turbines based on the requirements of
power generation.
• The turbines are equipped with governing
systems to control the power output of the plants.
2) Furnace-Boiler
• This is the unit of the plant where steam is
generated by burning fuels.
• The type of fuel used may be solid, liquid, gaseous
or pulverized based on the availability of fuel and
design of furnace.
• A combination of fuels is also possible.
• Water used to raise steam must be free from any
suspended or dissolved impurities.
• The impure water may lead to scale formation and
corrosion of the boiler plate or may cause foaming
which all hamper the boiler operation.
The type of boiler used depends upon the
pressure and quantity of steam required.
3) Fuel handling system
• Steam power plants generally use coal or
pulverized coal as the fuel.
• The fuel is required in large quantities, which
necessitates a fuel handling system.
• Usually, belt conveyors or bucket elevator are
used for handling the fuel.
4) Ash handling System
• The ash produced in a steam power plant
amounts to about 10-20 percent of the fuel burnt.
• This should be removed from the furnace and
disposed.
• This is done by a proper ash handling system.
The system used may be either mechanical,
hydraulic, pneumatic or steam jet type.
• This selection is based on the quantity of ash to
be handled and the type of boiler used.
5) Draught System
• This system is essential to supply required

quantity of air for combustion of the fuel, to

force the flue gases through the furnace boiler
system and finally to discharge the gases to the
atmosphere through a chimney.
• The draught system may be either natural or

mechanical type.
6) Condensing System
• The used steam is pure having a higher
temperature which can be condensed and fed to
the boiler.
• This increases the efficiency of the plant.
Generally water to steam type of condensers are
used with necessary pumping arrangements.
7) Water Cooling System
• The quantity of water used in condensing the
steam is very high and should be reused in the
condenser.
• This water gets heated up after condensing the
steam and this water is to be cooled for
recirculation.
• This is achieved by cooling towers, where water
is pumped to a high altitude and allowed to flow
over baffles.
• During this the water gets cooled which is
pumped back to the condensing unit.
8) Lubrication System
• The turbines and generators are run at high
speeds (3000 rpm).
• A proper lubrication system is essential to keep
the system running continuously.
• The lubrication system not only avoids wear and
tear but also provides a little cooling effect for
the bearings of the system.
8) Other Accessories.
• In addition to the above systems a steam power
plant, is also equipped with accessories like
economiser, super heater, de super heater,
air pre heater, soot blowers and furnace
cleaning units.
FUELS FOR STEAM GENARATION
• Steam power plant uses fossil fuels to generate
steam.
• The fuel may be in different form such as solid,
liquid, pulverized or gaseous.
• The selection of the type of fuel depends on the
availability of fuels and economical conditions .
Types of Fuels

• The important fuels are as follows-

1) Solid fuels
2) Liquid fuels
3) Gaseous fuels
1) Solid fuels
• Coal is the major fuel used for thermal power plants to
generate steam.
• Coal occurs in nature, which was formed by the decay
of vegetable matters buried under the earth millions of
years ago under pressure and heat.
• This phenomenon of transformation of vegetable
matter into coal under earths crust is known as
Metamorphism.
• The type of coal available under the earths surface
depends upon the period of metamorphism and the
type of vegetable matter buried, also the pressure and
temperature conditions.
• The major constituents in coal moisture (5-
40%),volatile matter (combustible & or
incombustible substances about 50%) and ash
(20-50%).
• The chemical substances in the coal are carbon,
hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur.
• In the metamorphism phenomenon, the vegetable
matters undergo the transformation from peat to
anthracite coal, with intermediate forms of lignite
and bituminous coal.
2) Liquid Fuels
• All types of liquid fuels used are derived from crude
petroleum and its by-products.
• The petroleum or crude oil consists of 80-85% C, 10-
15% hydrogen, and varying percentages of sulphur,
nitrogen, oxygen and compounds of vanadium.
• The crude oil is refined by fractional distillation process
to obtain fuel oils, for industrial as well as for domestic
purposes.
• The fractions from light oil to heavy oil are naphtha,
gasoline, kerosene, diesel and finally heavy fuel oil.
• The heavy fuel oil is used for generation of steam.
The use of liquid fuels in thermal power plants has many
advantages over the use of solid fuels.

Some important advantages are as follows:

1) The storage and handling of liquid fuels is much easier than
solid and gaseous fuels.
2) Excess air required for the complete combustion of liquid
fuels is less, as compared to the solid fuels.
3) Fire control is easy and hence changes in load can be met
easily and quickly.
4) There are no requirements of ash handling and disposal.
5) The system is very clean, and hence the labour required is
relatively less compared to the operation with solid fuels.
3) Gaseous Fuels
• For the generation of steam in gas fired thermal
plants, either natural gas or manufactured gaseous
fuels are used.
• However, manufactured gases are costlier than the
natural gas.
• Generally, natural gas is used for power plants as it
is available in abundance.
• The natural gas is generally obtained from gas wells
and petroleum wells.
• The major constituent in natural gas is methane, about
60-65%, and also contains small amounts of other
hydrocarbons such as ethane, naphthene and
aromatics, carbon dioxide and nitrogen.
• The natural gas is transported from the source to the
place of use through pipes, for distances to several
hundred kilometers.
• The natural gas is colourless, odourless and non-toxic.
• Its calorific value ranges from 25,000 to 50,000 kJ/m3,
in accordance with the percentage of methane in the
gas.
• The artificial gases are producer gas, water gas
coke-oven gas; and the Blast furnace gas.
• Generally, power plants fired with artificial gases are
not found.
• The gaseous fuels have advantages similar to those
of liquid fuels, except for the storage problems.
• The major disadvantage of power plant using
natural gas is that it should be setup near the
source, otherwise the transportation losses are too
high.
Fuel Feeding & Firing Systems
• In India, steam power plants use coal as the fuel,
since coal is the major source and also it is available
in abundance.
• Power plants with smaller outputs are using liquid
fuels like diesel oil and heavy fuel oils.
• All major steam power plants are run by burning
coal.
• Coal is generally referred to as fuel, which is used
either in solid or powdered form.
• The coal in powdered form is termed the pulverized
coal.
• The economical working of a steam power plant
depends upon the efficient combustion of fuel.
Hence fuel feeding and firing system to the furnace
plays an important role.
• The different firing methods are:
1. For solid fuel
• a) Hand firing
• b) Mechanical stoker firing
2. For pulverised fuel
• a) Unit system,
• b) Bin or central system
Hand Firing :
Though hand firing is simple and cheaper it is not
generally used, because of the following reasons:

1) It has low combustion efficiency.

2) Slow response to the load fluctuations.

3) Combustion control is difficult.

4) Suitable only for small power plants.

 Mechanical Stoker Firing :
Even though it is costlier, generally they are used
to feed the solid fuels in small and medium size
power plants, because of the following reasons:
• 1) Combustion is more efficient.
• 2) Fuel handling is automatic and combustion
control is easier.
• 3) Faster response to load fluctuations.
• 4) Low quality fuels can be successfully burnt.
• 5) Suitable for small to high capacity plants.
Principle of Stokers
The different types of stokers work on the
following principles.

a) Principle of overfeed stokers

b) Principle of under feed stoker

a) Principle of overfeed stokers
• A fully built up overfeed stoker will have the beds
of green coal (raw coal), incandescent coke and
ash over the grate.
• In this the primary air enters the grate from the
bottom, which cools the grate while moving up
and gets heated as it passes through hot ash
bed.
• The hot air then passes through the bed of
incandescent coke, where oxygen reacts with the
carbon in the coke to form carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide and hydrogen.
• Part of carbon dioxide formed reacts with carbon
in the fuel to form carbon monoxide.
• The gases leaving the bed of incandescent coke
consist of nitrogen, carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, hydrogen and water.
• To these gases, then an additional air termed the
secondary air is supplied from the sides to burn the
combustible gases like the carbon monoxide,
hydrogen and other volatile matters.
• The burnt hot gases entering the boiler consist of
carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen, and water.
• It may also contain carbon monoxide, if the
combustion is incomplete.
• The primary and secondary air to the stoker are
supplied under pressure with the help of blowers.
b) Principle of under feed stoker
• In this the coal is charged from the bottom, and the
primary air under pressure also moves from the
bottom through the holes in the grate.
• This stoker has the layers of ash, incandescent coke
bed and raw coal, in the reverse direction as
compared to that of the overfeed stoker.
• In operation the primary air entering from the bottom
through the grate holes comes in contact with the
coal and then passes through the bed of
incandescent coke.
• In operation the primary air entering from the bottom
through the grate holes comes in contact with the
green coal and then passes through the bed of
incandescent coke.
• Initially, air reacts with carbon in the coke to form
carbon dioxide, and the moisture in the air reacts to
release carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and
hydrogen.
• While these gases pass over the ash bed, secondary
air is supplied for their complete combustion.
• This method is most suitable for semi-bituminous and
bituminous coals which have high volatile-matter.
Types of Stokers
• Different types of stokers are
1. Over feed stokers
• a) conveyer stoker
• i) Chain grate stoker
• ii) Traveling grate stoker
• b) Spreader stoker

2. Under feed stokers

• a) single retort stoker
• b) Multi-retort stoker
1) Chain & traveling grate stokers
• The chain grate and traveling grate stoker are similar in
operation, but differ only in grate construction. `
Chain Grate or Traveling Grate Stoker Boiler
 Coal is fed on one end of a moving
steel chain grate
 Coal burns and ash drops off at end
 Coal grate controls rate of coal feed
into furnace by controlling the
thickness of the fuel bed.
 Coal must be uniform in size as
large lumps will not burn out
completely
 Bed thickness decreases from coal
feed end to rear end and so more
air at front and less air at rear end
to be supplied
 Water tube boiler
• A chain grate stoker consists of an endless chain
which forms the support for the fuel bed.
• The chain is made of cast iron links connected by
pins.
• The chain is held over two sprockets as shown
figure, and travels from one end of the furnace to
the other end.
• The sprocket at the front end is driven by an
electric motor.
• The coal is fed at the front end through a hopper
which is carried by the chain to the other end,
hence into the furnace.
• The air necessary for the combustion of the fuel
is supplied through the air inlets below the
traveling grate.
• The secondary air is supplied through the
openings in the top roof as shown in figure.
• The rate of fuel supplied to the grate and hence the
heat to the boiler can be controlled by two means.
• The first means is to control the depth of the coal
bed on the grate by controlling the feed to the
hopper. In the second method, the speed of the
chain grate can be adjusted to meet the boiler
operation requirements.
• The chain grate stokers are widely used for burning
non-caking (that does not form a solid mass while
burning), free burning, volatile and high ash content
coals.
Advantages of chain grate stokers

1) It is simple in construction and operation.

2) Its initial and maintenance costs very low.

3) It doesn't have ash cleaning problems.

4) Combustion control is simple, by control of feed

or chain speed, along with the air supply.

5) Its combustion efficiency is high.

Disadvantages
1) It is suitable only for small capacity plants.
2) Coal losses are high as the un burnt coal may also
move with ash.
3) If caking coal is used ash clinker problems may rise.
• In the traveling grate stoker, the chain grate is
replaced by grate bars that support the burning fuel.
• Also the grate is inclined towards the inlet of the
furnace.
• The fuel movement is accomplished and controlled
by vibration of the grate.
• The air supply similar to the chain grate stoker.
2) Spreader or Sprinkler Stoker
• In this type stoker, coal from the hopper is fed on
to a rotating feeder which in turn feeds the, to a
spreader or sprinkler, and feed according to the
requirements.
• Feeder is a rotating drum fitted with blades on its
periphery.
• Other type of feeders such as reciprocations,
endless belts or spiral worms can also be used.
• The feeder continuously supply the coal on to the
spreader, a fast moving drum with blades, which
in turn distributes and feeds the coal on to the
grate as shown in figure.
• The fuel feed rate and the supplied to the boiler
can be controlled by controlling the feed to the
hopper or by controlling the spreader speed.
• Fig. shows the schematic arrangement of a
spreader stoker.
• In this type stoker, coal from the hopper is fed on
to a rotating feeder which in turn feeds the, to a
spreader or sprinkler, and feed according to the
requirements.
• Feeder is a rotating drum fitted with blades on its
periphery. Other type of feeders such as
reciprocating rams, endless belts or spiral
worms can also be used.
• The feeder continuously supplies the coal on to
the spreader, a fast moving drum with blades,
which in turn distributes and feeds the coal on to
the grate as shown in figure.
• The fuel feed rate and the supplied to the boiler
can be controlled by controlling the feed to the
hopper ar by controlling the spreader speed.
Advantages of spreader stoker
1) Its operation is simple and economical.
2) A wide variety of low quality coals can be burnt
successfully.
3) Preheated air can be used for improving the
efficiency of operation.
4) The fuel burns rapidly and hence the caking
tendency is very low, even with the use of caking
coals.
5) It can responds quickly to load variations;
Disadvantages
1) It is not possible to burn varying sizes of coal
and only crushed, sized coal can be used.
2) A part of the charge is burnt in suspension and
hence fly ash is discharged with flue gases.
This necessitates an suitable dust (or fly ash)
collector system.
3) Un burnt carbon particles may escape through
the flues and reduce the combustion efficiency.
3) Single Retort Stoker
• The principle of
construction of a single
retort stoker is
illustrated in Fig.
• In this stoker, fuel is
burnt on a retort.
• The fuel is fed through
a hopper and pushed
on to the retort by a
piston ram movement.
• With the feeding from the bottom, gradually the
burning coat rises up.
• Above the green coal an incandescent coke
layer is formed, and above which the ash layer
is formed.
• With the continuous feeding of green coal, the
ash level rises that is removed by ash raker.
4) Multi Retort Stoker
• It contains of a series of retorts (5 to 20) with
tuyers and pushers.
• It also consists of a fuel hopper and a coal pusher
at the hopper end as shown in figure.
• The coal fed through the hopper is pushed by the
main pusher driven by a ram.
The distributing pushers in the retorts push the
coal and distribute it to all the retorts.
• The movement of the fuel bed by the pushers
helps in minimizing the clinker formation.
• The primary air enters the wind box below the
retorts, and flows through the retorts.
• An air damper is provided at the air inlet in the
wind box to control the airflow to the furnace.
• The airflow to the extension grate at its entry is
further controlled by another damper, since the
extension grate requires small quantity of air
with less fuel burning on it.
• The ash formed from all the retorts falls into the
ash pit.
Advantages of multi retort stoker
1) Since the combustion rate is high, such a stoker
is most suitable for high capacity power plants.
2) The combustion efficiency of this stoker is very
high.
3) As the fuel is pushed off by the pushers, they
perform the cleaning action as well.
4) Automatic combustion control can be adopted in
this stoker.
5) This stoker can respond quickly to variations in
demand.
Disadvantages
• 1) The operation and maintenance is expensive.
• 2) The initial investment is high.
• 3) Ash clinker problems may arise.
• 4) It needs a larger area for installation and
operation.
• 5) Low grade, high ash fuels cannot be burnt
successfully.
Pulverized Coal Firing
• In pulverised fuel firing system, the coal is

powdered and then charged into the combustion

chamber with the help of hot air current.
• The main purpose of pulverizing coal is to

increase the surface area of exposure to the

combustion process, which results in faster and
efficient combustion.
• In burning the pulverized coal, the secondary air
required for the complete combustion of fuel is
supplied separately to the combustion chamber.
The resulting turbulence in the combustion
chamber helps for uniform mixing of fuel and air.
• The air required to carry the pulverized coal and
dry it before entering the combustion chamber
is termed the Priming Air, and the air supplied
separately for complete combustion is termed
the Secondary Air.
• Pulverized coal firing systems are universally
adopted far large scale power plants.
• The choice of pulverized fuel firing system
depends upon the size of the boiler unit, type of
coal available, cost of coal, type of load (i.e.,
fluctuating or constant), the load factor and
availability of trained personnel.
• Generally such systems are not economical for
small capacity thermal power plants.
Advantages of using pulverised coal
1) A wide variety of low grade fuels (coal) can be
used and burnt easily.
2) Greater surface area is exposed for combustion
and hence combustion is faster and efficient.
3) The system is free from clinker and slagging
troubles.
4) Combustion control is easy, and hence the
system gives fast response to load changes.
5) Preheated secondary air (up to 350°C) can be used,
resulting in rapid flame propagation and faster heat
supply to the boiler.
6) The pulverizing system can be maintained or
repaired without affecting the combustion process.
7) It has a very high rate of heat release.
8) Banking losses (un burnt fuel with ash) are lower,
as compared to stoker firing.
9) The boilers can be started from cold very rapidly.
10) Usually combustion will be smokeless.
Disadvantages of Pulverised system
1) The capital investment of the system is high as it
requires additional equipments (for pulverizing,
and handling).
2) Its operation and maintenance costs are very
high.
3) It produces fly-ash/fine dust and needs costly fly-
ash removal equipments like electrostatic
precipitators.
4) The chances of explosion are high as coal
burns like a gas.
5) The storage of powdered coal requires special
attention as it has possibilities of fire
hazards.
6) Skilled workers are required for safe-operation
and maintenance.
7) Air pollution takes place by the emission of
fine particles of grit and dirt.
8) The removal of liquid slag formed from low
fusion temperature ash requires special
handling equipments.
Pulverised Fuel Burning System

• There are two common methods of pulverized

fuel burning systems-

1. Unit system

2. Central or Bin system

a) Unit System
• In this system, each burner and a pulveriser
constitute a unit.
• It consists of a raw coal bunker, a feeder,
pulverizing mill, separator, and the burner.
• In operation, the raw coal is supplied to the
bunker, where it is crushed to the required sizes.
• The crushed coal is then fed to the pulverizing
mill through the feeder at the required rate,
depending upon the combustion requirements.
• Hot gases are passed through the feeder to dry
the coal.
• The dried coal is pulverised in the mill and it is
carried to the burner.
• An induced draft fan is used at the pulverizer to
carry the powdered coal to the burner.
• A separator is provided to separate the grains of
bigger size from the powder and returned to the
pulveriser for further crushing.
Advantages
1) It is simple in operation and economical than the
central system.
2) Combustion is controlled directly after pulveriser.
3) Maintenance cost is low.
4) Fuel supply to the burner can be controlled easily.
Disadvantages
1) The performance of the pulverizing mill is poor as the
system operates at variable loads.
2) The total capacity of mills must be higher than the
central system.
3) The unit system of fuel burning is less flexible.
4) Whenever any of the auxiliaries fails the burner has to
be put-off.
5) Wear and tear of the fan blades is more since it handles
hot air and coal particles.
6) Strict maintenance of pulverizing mill is a must for
perfect operation of the system.
b) Central or Bin System
• Fig. shows schematic arrangement and the
principle of operation of a central, or bin system
for burning pulverised coal.
• The crushed raw coal is dried using hot air or flue
gases and fed to the pulveriser.
• The pulverised coal from the pulverizing mill is
passed to the cyclone separator where over-
sized particles are separated and fed back to
the mill.
• The pulverised coal is then transferred from the
separator to the central bunker (bin) through a
conveyer system.
• The pressurized air from the forced draft fan,
supplies the stored coal to the burner.
• This air not only carries the fuel, but also acts as
the primary air for the combustion of the fuel.
• Secondary air is supplied to the burner
separately to assist in the complete combustion.
Advantages
1) It is simple in operation and economical than the
central system.
2) Combustion is controlled directly after pulveriser.
3) Maintenance cost is low.
4) Fuel supply to the burner can be controlled easily.
Disadvantages
1) The performance of the pulverizing mill is poor as the
system operates at variable loads.
2) The total capacity of mills must be higher than the central
system.
3) The unit system of fuel burning is less flexible.
4) Whenever any of the auxiliaries fails the burner has to be
put-off.
5) Wear and tear of the fan blades is more since it handles
hot air and coal particles.
6) Strict maintenance of pulverizing mill is a must for perfect
operation of the system.
Advantages of Central system
1) Central system is highly flexible and hence can
meet any quick changes in the demand.
2) Burner operation is independent of coal
pulverization.
3) The pulverizing mill can be stopped when there
is a good stock of pulverised fuel in the bin.
4) The fan wear is less as it handles only natural
air.
5) Coal size can be controlled efficiently.
Disadvantages
1) Central system is expensive, and occupies
more space.
2) It requires complicated coal handling systems.
3) Power consumption in auxiliaries is high.
4) Chances of fire hazards are more since the
pulverised fuel is stored.
5) Operation and maintenance costs are high.
Pulverised Coal Burners
• Burners are devices that allow uniform mixing of
fuel with air hence lead to efficient and complete
combustion.
• The burner receives the fuel along with the
primary air in a central passage, while the
secondary air is supplied around the passage.
• A good design of the burner is essential to
achieve complete combustion of the fuel.
Thus a good burner should meet a number of
design requirements.
The important requirements of an efficient
pulverised coal burner are as follows:
1) It should mix the fuel and primary air thoroughly and
inject the mixture into the furnace.
2) It should create proper· turbulence for air-fuel mixing and
maintain a stable combustion.
3) It should be able to control the flame shape and flame
travel by varying the amount of secondary air.
4) Coal-air mixture should move away from the burner at a
rate equal to the flame travel so as to avoid flash back.
5) It should be projected properly to avoid over heating,
wear and internal fires.
TYPES OF BURNERS
• There are four types of burners used for the
pulverised fuel burning.
• The principles of operation of these burners are
briefly discussed.
1) long-Flame or U-Flame or Stream lined burner
2) Short Flame or Turbulent Burner
3) Tangential Burners
4) Cyclone Burner
1) long-Flame or Pulverized
U - Flame or Stream
lined burner
• The arrangement of a
long flame, U-shaped
burner is schematically
shown Fig.
• The burner is placed
such that it produces a
long, u-shaped flame.
• The burner injects a mixture of primary air and fuel
vertically downwards in thin streams practically with
no turbulence and produces a long flame.
• Secondary hot air is supplied at right angles to the
flame which provides necessary turbulence and
mixing for proper and rapid combustion.
• A tertiary air is supplied around the burner for better
mixing of the fuel with air.
• In this burner due to long flame travel, high volatile
coals can be burnt easily.
• Velocity of the air-fuel mixture at the burner tip is
around of 25 m/sec.
2) Short Flame or Turbulent Burner
• The schematic arrangement of a short-flame or
turbulent burner is illustrated in fig.
•
Pulverized
• These burners are generally built into the

furnace walls, so that the flame is projected

horizontally into the furnace.

• Primary air and the fuel mixture is combined with

secondary air at the burner periphery, before the

entry into the furnace as shown in figure.

• This burner gives out a turbulent mixture which
burns rapidly and combustion is completed within a
short distance.
• Therefore, the combustion rate is high.
• The velocity of mixture at the burner tip is about
50 m/sec.
• In such burners, the bituminous coal can be burnt
easily.
• Modern high capacity power plants use such
burners.
3) Tangential Burners
• These burners are built into the furnace walls at
the corners.
• They inject the air-fuel mixture tangentially to an
imaginary circle in the centre of furnace.
• As the flames intercept, it leads to a swirling
action.
• This produces sufficient turbulence in the furnace
for complete combustion.
• Hence in such burners, there is no need to
produce high turbulence within the burners.
Tangential burners give fast and high heat release
rates.
 Pulverized Fuel Boiler
Coal is pulverised to a fine powder, so that less than 2% is +300
microns, and 70-75% is below 75 microns.
Coal is blown with part of the combustion air into the boiler
plant through a series of burner nozzles.

• Combustion takes place at

temperatures from 1300-1700°C
• One of the most popular system for
firing pulverized coal is the
tangential firing using four burners
corner to corner to create a fire ball
at the center of the furnace.
Tangential firing
• Theses burners can also be constructed so as to
move up and down through some angle, ±30
degrees. With this arrangement, the position of the
turbulent mixture and the point of combustion can
be raised or lowered, and hence the furnace
temperature can be easily controlled.
• In these burners, fly ash produced in the
combustion process may get deposited on the
exposed furnace wall surfaces and solidify as slag.
This in turn will affect the heat transfer capability of
the boiler.
• This can be avoided by providing sufficient heat
absorbing surface to cool the molten ash below
its softening temperature by radiation, before it
reaches the furnace wall surfaces.
• This problem does not exist in modern boilers,
since the furnace walls are water-cooled type.
4) Cyclone Burner
• This burner burns the coal particles in
suspension, thus avoiding fly-ash problems,
which is common in other types of burners.
• This burner uses crushed coal (about 5 to 6
mm size) instead of pulverised coal.
• This burner can easily burn low grade coal with
high ash and moisture content.
• Also, this can burn biofuels such as rice husk.
• The principle of operation of a cyclone burner is
illustrated in Fig.
• The cyclone burner consists of a horizontal
cylinder of about 3 m diameter and about 4 m
length.
• The cylinder wall is water cooled, while the
inside surface is lined ,with chrome ore.
• The horizontal axis of the burner is slightly
inclined towards the boiler.
• The coal used in cyclone burner is crushed to
about 6 mm size.
• Coal and primary air (about 25% of the combustion
or secondary air) are admitted tangentially into the
cylinder so as to produce a strong centrifugal motion
and turbulence to the coal particles.
• The primary air and fuel mixture flows centrifugally
along the cylinder walls towards the furnace.
• From the top of the burner, the secondary air is also
admitted tangentially, at a high velocity (about
100 m/s).
• The high velocity secondary air causes further
increase in the centrifugal motion, leading to a highly
turbulent whirling motion of the coal air mixture.
• Tertiary air (about 5 to 10% of the secondary air)
is admitted , axially at the centre as shown in fig,
so as to move the turbulent coal-air mixture
towards the furnace.
• The coal is burnt completely within the burner and
only hot gases enter the furnace.
• Such burners produce high heat and
temperatures (about 1000°C).
• Due to high temperature burning, the ash melts in
the form of slag, and is drained out periodically at
the bottom.
Advantages of cyclone burner
1) Since it uses crushed coal, it saves the cost of
pulverization.
2) All the incombustible are retained in cyclone
burner, and hence the boiler fouling problems
are reduced.
3) It requires less excess air, as it uses forced
draught.
4) Slag-recovery is around 80% and dust passing
to the stack is about 10%. Thus simple
equipment can be used for dust removal.
5) Fly ash problem is reduced to a great extent.
6) Low grade fuels can be used.
Disadvantages

I) It requires high pressure draught and

consumes higher power.

2) It produces more oxides of nitrogen, which

creates atmospheric pollution.

Pulverizing Mills
• The coal is pulverised by abrasion, crushing or
impact (hammer) action.
• The different types of pulverizing mills used are
as follows:
1. Ball Mill
2. Ball and Race Mill
3. Bowl Mill
4. Hammer Mill
1. Ball Mill
• It consists of a large steel drum, a hopper, classifier
and exhauster.
• The steel drum is the pulversier, which is partly
filled with steel balls of different sizes.
• The diameter of the balls varies from 25 to 50 mm.
• The drum is driven by a drive mechanism, and
rotates at a speed of about 120 m/min (peripheral
velocity).
• In operation, sized raw coal (about 60 mm) is fed to
the hopper.
• Coal passes through the classifiers and enters the
steel drum through the screw conveyors on either
sides as shown in figure.
• As the drum is continuously rotating, the coal is
impacted between balls, gets crushed and
pulverised.
• Hot air, heated from the-flues is passed into the
drum.
• Hot air carries the powdered coal and passes
through the classifier.
• In the classifier the over sized coal particles are
separated and sent back to the drum along with
the raw coal for further powdering.
• Two induced draft fans pick up the pulverised
coal from the classifier, and sent to the burners.
• A typical ball mill to pulverize 10 tones of coal
requires about 30 tones of steel balls, and
consumes about 25 kW of power per tone of coal
pulverised.
2. Ball & Race Mill
• This mill is also termed the contact mill, since the
pulverizing action takes place between two races
that are in contact with rolling balls.
• It consists of an upper stationary race, and 10
moving race and balls in between the races as
shown in figure.
• The lower race driven by bevel gears.
• The coal is fed through the side hopper mounted
at the top of the mill.
• In operation, the fed coal from the hopper enters
the race gaps through circumference periphery.
• The coal comes between the balls and the races
and crushed.
• There also exists abrasion action between the
ball/race and the coal.
• coal in between the races and the balls is
continuously crushed in this fashion pulverised.
• The races are forced together under the action of
springs, so as to a the crushing force on the coal.
• Also, the spring pressure can be varied to suit
pulverizing size needs.
• Hot air is supplied to the mill through the annular
space surrounding the race by a forced draught fan.
• The hot primary air picks up the pulverized coal,
rises up the mill and passes through the classifier.
• In the classifier, the large sized coal particle are
thrown out by centrifugal action, while the fine
powder moves along with the air.
• From the classifier, fully powdered coal is
supplied to the burners.
• A typical ball and race mill consumes about 15
kW of power per tone of the coal pulverised.
• Compared to ball mills, such mills are simple in
construction, easy economical for operation.
• Also ball and race mills require lesser floor area
consume less power.
Bowl Mill
• It consists of a moving bowl driven by an electric
motor.
• The stationary rollers are located on the bowl wall.
• The rollers are spring loaded to adjust the
pulverizing pressure.
• The coal fed from the hopper is ground in between
the rollers and the rotating bowl.
• Hot air enters the bowl from the bottom and carries
with it the powdered coal particles.
• The large sized particles are separated in the
classifier and fall back into the bowl.
• The pulverised coal from the mill is sucked by an
induced draft fan and is supplied to the burners, as
shown in figure.
Fuel Oil Burning Systems
• Burners are used for burning fuel oil.
• Basically, a burner is designed to atomize or
vaporize the oil, mix it with suitable amount of air
and allow for the efficient combustion.
• The different types of oil burners are:
1. Vaporizing burners
a) Atmospheric pressure burner
b) Recirculation burner
c) Wick type burner
2. Atomizing burners
a) Rotary cup-type
b) Mechanical or oil pressure burner
c) Steam or high pressure air burner
• Vaporizing burners are widely used in domestic
and industrial applications.
• In such burners the fuel is vaporized by heating.
• In atomizing burners the fuel oil is atomized, that
is split into fine particles so as to increase the
area of exposure to the air.
• For this purpose, centrifugal force, or oil under
high pressure, or the high pressure air or steam
are commonly used.
1) Rotary cup burner
• The construction of a common rotary cup oil
burner is schematically illustrated in Fig.
• It consists of a horizontal rotary cup that runs at
a high speed (about 3000 rpm).
• The oil is supplied at the center though the inlet
port, and it is sprayed on the inner surface of the
rim of the high speed rotary cup.
• The oil is spun off the high speed cup due to
centrifugal force as very fine particles into the air
stream entering the cup periphery, thus
atomizing the oil.
• The direction of rotation of the cup and the
direction of flow of air are opposite such that
both mix thoroughly by swirling action as they
leave the burner, and burn easily.
• Such burners have a wide capacity ranges, as
the rate of oil burnt can be easily regulated by
controlling the inlet port size at the centre of the
cup.
2) Mechanical or oil pressure burner
• The construction of a typical oil pressure burner
is schematically illustrated in Fig.
• In these burners the oil is subjected to high
pressure and atomized by passing it through an
orifice.
• The oil is supplied under high pressure of 10 to
20 bar.
• Usually the oil passes through a swirl chamber
and thoroughly get mixed with primary air.
• As the oil under pressure is ejected out of the
orifice, it breaks down into fine particles, forms a
conical oil mist and easily undergoes combustion.
The oil flow through the orifice can be regulated
with the help of control piston (plunger), which
closes the tangential slots to the required level.
3) Steam or high pressure air burner
• In these burners the oil is atomized with the help
of high pressure compressed air or steam.
• The high pressure air or steam enters the nozzle
and mixes with the fuel.
• The air and oil ,are supplied through two
different channels, and are mixed either within
the nozzle before leaving it or outside the nozzle
after leaving it.
• The principle of such burners is schematically
shown in Fig:
The principle of such burners is schematically
shown in Fig:
Coal Handling
• Coal handling refers to the process of conveying
the coal from the point of unloading to the place of
use.
• It is carried out by several means depending upon
the requirements of the power plant.
• The important equipment used for transporting the
coal are in a power plant are as follows:
• 1) Belt conveyors
• 2) Screw conveyors
• 3) Bucket elevators
• 4) Grab Bucket elevators
1) Belt Conveyor
• It is basically an endless moving belt over which
the coal is moved, The belt is connected to a pair
of drums at the ends, and supported at the upper
portion by a series of rollers (idlers) at regular
intervals, as illustrated in Fig.
• The belt is usually made of strong and flexible
materials such as rubber or canvas.
• Belt conveyors are useful for transportation of
large quantity of coal over long distances in power
plants.
• The belt is inclined at about 15-20 degrees from
the charge end to the discharge end.
• The average speed of belt conveyors is in the
range of 50 to 100 m/minute.
Advantages
1) It is simple in construction and operation.
2) The operation is smooth and clean.
3) It requires less power compared to other
systems.
4) Large quantities of coal can be conveyed quickly
and continuously.
5) It is comparatively cheaper in maintenance and
operation.
2) Screw Conveyors
• It consists of an endless helical screw around a
shaft.
• It is supported on two bearings and one side of, the
shaft is coupled with a driving motor.
• The screw is covered with a cylindrical trough,
Coal is transported along the helical screw as it
rotates in the trough.
• The diameter of the screw is about 200mm and it
runs at about 100 rpm.
• A screw conveyor is most suitable for medium
scale coal transportation (about 100 to 125 tones/
hour).
Advantages

1) It is relatively inexpensive.

2) It requires minimum space for operation.

3) It is very simple and compact.

4) It can be made dust - tight.

Disadvantages
1) Power consumption is comparatively high.

2) It is suitable for only short distance

transportation (around 20 to 30 m).

3) Wear and tear of the parts is more.

3) Bucket Elevators
• This type of conveyer is used for moving the coal
vertically up.
• It consists of a number of buckets fixed on to a
chain moving over two sprockets, as shown in
Fig.
• In this, coil is picked up by the up-moving
buckets from the bottom part of the conveyer.
The coal form the buckets id discharged at the
top due to centrifugal force as the buckets
change the direction.
• Usually such conveyors can transport coal to
height of up to 30 m.
4) Grab Bucket Elevator
• The construction of a grab bucket elevator
illustrated in Fig.
• It consists of a crane which can lift the coal and
move Circumferentially in a given location.
• This system is most suitable for handling coal at
the coal store yard.
• Thus used to load coal from the yard to the
wagon tippler, which then moves inside the
plant.
• This elevator has the unique advantage of operating as a

crane as well as moving in all directions.

• This helps in lifting the coal using the, grab bucket from

the yard, change its direction, move to the required

distance and unload it onto the wagon tippler.
• The grab bucket with bottom closed condition picks up

the coal from the heap and when moved to the wagon
opens its split opening bottom, thereby dumping the coal
onto the wagon.
Flow of Coal in Power Plants
• The flow of coal in a power plant takes place in
the following sequences:
1) Storage yard to wagon tippler using grab bucket
elevator.
2) Wagon tippler to belt conveyor:
3) Belt conveyor to crusher, and then to separator.
4) Separator to belt conveyor to bucket elevator.
5) Bucket elevator, to pulveriser.
6) Pulveriser to bin to furnace.
Line diagram of the coal flow
sequences.
Line diagram of the coal flow sequences.
1) The raw coal from the storage yard is lifted and
loaded to the wagon tippler using a grab bucket
elevator.
Grab bucket elevator is conveniently load coal as
it operates like a crane and moves as well in all
directions.
2.) The wagon tippler moves on rails from the
storage yard to the belt conveyor and the coal is
unloaded by tilting the wagon tippler by a tilting
mechanism.
3) The belt conveyor carries the raw coal to a size
crusher where the coal is crushed to 50 mm size
and passes to a vibration separator.
Oversized pieces from the separator are lifted
and transported back to the crusher using a
bucket elevator.
4) The sized coal then moves on to another belt
conveyor and lifted up by another bucket
elevator (if necessary) to the hopper of the
pulverizing mill.
5) The coal is then powdered in the pulverizing mill,
where hot air is passed to remove the moisture
from the coal and for easy powdering action.
The powdered coal is sucked by an induced draft
fan and passed through the cyclone separator, and
the fuel is stored in a bin.
Over sized coal from the cyclone separator falls
back to the pulverizing mill.
6) The fuel from the storage bin is then fed through
the pulverised fuel feeder by a forced draft fan to
the burner mounted in the furnace walls.
Ash Handling
• Coal based steam power plants produce a large
quantity of ash.
• The amount of ash produced is about 20 to 30%
of the coal burnt.
• Ash handling in power plants is a major problem
since the ash taken out from the furnace is hot,
dusty, massive to handle and comes out with
some gases that are hazardous to hearth.
• Generally, before handling the ash from the furnace
is first quenched in water for the following reason
1) Water quenching reduces the temperature of ash,
hence can be handled easily.
2) It dilutes the ash, thus reducing its corrosive
characteristics.
3) Large lumps of ash clinkers get disintegrated after
quenching, thus making easier to handle.
4) On quenching, the dust particles and some
hazardous gases in the ash get dissolve in water,
and reduce the pollution problems.
Requirements of Ash Handling
Equipments
1) Capital investment; operating and maintenance charges
should be low.
2) It should be able to handle large quantities of ash.
3) It should be capable of handling clinkers, soot, and dust
smoothly.
4) It should operate with minimum noise.
5) It should be capable of handling ashes with different
chemical composition hence varieties of fuels can be
used.
6) It should handle effectively both hot and wet ashes.
7) It should be corrosion and wear resistant.
8) It should have high ash handling rate to deal with sudden
change in operating conditions.
Types of Ash Handling Systems

• There are four types of ash handling systems:

1. Mechanical handling system

2. Hydraulic handling system.

3. Pneumatic handling system

4. Steam jet handling system

1. Mechanical Ash Handling system
These are suitable for small and medium coal power
plants.
• It is a conveyor based ash handling system.
• In this, the hot ash from the furnace is dumped to a
water trough, where it gets quenched.
• The quenched ash is discharged over to a belt
conveyor.
• The cooled ash is then conveyed by the bell a distant
dumping site, from where it is collected in bunkers and
transported by means of trucks for further disposal.
2. Hydraulic Ash Handling system
• In this system, ash is carried by a high velocity
stream of water through a channel, and dumped to
the ash sump. There are two categories in this -
low velocity and high velocity systems.
• (a) Low Velocity System
• In this system, the hot ash from the furnaces is
discharged into a flowing water channel.
• The water flows at a low velocity (3-5 m/sec) and
carries the ash along with it.
• At the sump ash is separated from the water and the
water is reused.
• The typical ash carrying capacity of this system is
about 50 tones/hour and can carry ashes up to 1km.
(b) High Velocity System
• In this, the hot ash from the furnace is quenched by
a set of water jets.
• Another set or nozzles at the lower portion of the
system, give out high velocity water jets, which
provide the driving force to carry the ash to sump.
• The cooled ash with high velocity water is carried to
the sump, where water and ash are separated, the
typical ash handling capacity of such a system is
about 100 tones/hour and distances up to 2 km
can be easily covered.
• Troughs and sumps for this system are constructed using
corrosion resistant materials, since the ash is highly corrosive.
Advantages (High Velocity System)
1) It is a clean and dust free system.
2) Since it is fully covered, it does not pose any
health hazards problems.
3) It can carry higher quantity of ash and hence
suitable for large capacity power plants.
4) It can carry ashes to higher distances (2 km) at
faster rates.
5) Molten ash can also be handled safely and
easily.
3. Pneumatic Ash Handling System
• In this system, ash from the furnace is crushed in
crushers to small size, so that it can be handled
easily by pneumatic means.
• This powdered ash and dust ate picked up by a
high velocity stream of air created by the
exhauster at the discharge end.
• This ash is separated from the air in the primary
and secondary cyclone separators and collected
in the hopper.
• The air is exhausted to atmosphere after passing
through the filter.
• The collected ash is conveyed through trucks to
the dumping yard.
• The exhauster used may be an induced draft fan,
steam jet or water-jet type.
• If an induced draft fan is used, suitable air filter or
air-washers are necessary for cleaning the air
before being released to the atmosphere.
• The ash carrying capacity of a pneumatic system
is about 10 to 30 tones/hours.
• This system is suitable for handling abrasive ash,
as well as fine dusty materials such as fly-ash
and soot.
Advantages
1) It can conveniently handle both fly ash and soot.
2) Ash is handled in dry state and hence there are
no chances of sticking or choking in any part of
the system.
3) The system is highly flexible.
4) Conveyor pipe line requires less space
5) It is an economical system and the cost per tone
of ash discharged is low.
Disadvantages
1) It makes more noise than other systems
2) The wear and tear of pipe line is more as dry
ash comes in direct contact, and hence
maintenance charges are more.
3) This is suitable only for small capacity plants.
4. Steam Jet System

In this system, steam under high pressure carries

the ashes through a pipe line, under high velocity.
• The ash is deposited in the hopper at the other side
of the pipe line.
• This is not used widely as the pipe wear is more,
noise is heavy and also the capacity of ash
discharge is very low (about 15 T/h).
 High pressure boilers
• High pressure boilers are used in thermal power
plants to fulfill the requirements of high pressure
steam to run steam turbines; which in turn run the
electric generators to produce electric power.
As the
name indicates these are capable of rising steam to
a high pressure and temperature up to 250 bars
and at 550°C as against 30 bar and about 400°C
by the conventional boilers.
• High pressure boilers facilitate the use of low
grade fuels and economical design and efficient
boiler construction.
• Thus high pressure boilers yield higher thermal
efficiency
• Usually high pressure boilers are water tube
types, the boiler walls are used as the heat
exchangers, and use pulverised coal for steam
generation.
 Boiler Types and Classifications
• Water flow through tubes Water Tube Boiler
• Water Tubes surrounded by
hot gas
Application
• Used for Power Plants
• Steam capacities range from
4.5- 120 t/hr
Characteristics
• High Capital Cost
• Used for high pressure high
capacity steam boiler
 Features of High Pressure Boilers
• The important features of high pressure boilers
are as follows:
1) Forced circulation of water
2) Use of smaller diameter tubes
3) Pressurized combustion
4) Space area
5) Power output
1) Forced circulation of water : Since
the inside pressure of high-pressure boilers is
very high, natural water circulation is not possible.
Hence water pumps are used to maintain forced
circulation or feed water through the boiler tubes.
Forced circulation facilitates
(a) positive circulation of water,
(b) increased rate of heat transfer,
(c) the use of smaller boiler drum/or less number of
steam drums, in case multiple drum are used.
2) Use of smaller diameter tubes:
High pressure Boilers are equipped with large
number of smaller diameter tubes, because of
which the surface area exposed to the flue
gases is more.
This helps in:
(a) more effective use of the fuel,
(b) reduced pressure loss, and
(c) control of quality of steam produced.
3) Pressurized combustion:
In high-pressure boilers, the required air for
combustion is generally supplied by the
blowers.
Because of this low grade fuels can be burnt
more efficiently.
This also increases the rate of firing of fuels
and hence the rate of heat transfers.
4) Space area:
Since high-pressure boilers are more compact,
they require lesser floor area for their location
per unit quantity of steam generated.

5) Power output:
As these boilers generate high pressure and high
temperature steam (250 bars, 550°C), it leads to
higher output of the plants.
Advantages of High Pressure Boilers
1) Low grade fuels can be successfully burnt
because of pressurized combustion.
2) The tendency of scale formation is reduced due
to the high velocity of water through the tubes.
3) They require lesser floor area and adopt
economical constructions. Hence they are
economical for higher plant outputs.
4) As all parts are uniformly heated, there is no risk
of overheating & thermal stresses.
5) Because of forced circulation of water the
components can be laid horizontally since there
is no need for natural circulation.

6) Steam can be raised at a faster rate to meet the

varying load demands.

7) These boilers can start quickly and generate

steam from cold.
Demerits of High Pressure Boilers
1) Since they work under high pressure and temperature,
chances of explosion are more, and it necessitates the use
of high quality materials for construction.
2) Accessories like blowers, feed water pumps, water
circulating pumps etc., are essential and this increases the
initial investment of the power plant.
3) Since a large number of accessories are essential for the
safe and continuous operation of the boiler, the cost of
maintenance is very high.
4) Expert and skilled personnel are required to operate the
high pressure boilers.
5) The number of working parts are more, which leads to a
higher erection time.
Natural and Forced Circulation
In a good boiler design, proper circulation of water is
essential to generate steam.
• The water is required to be circulated from the boiler
drum through the water tubes for heat
absorption/generation of steam and back to the
drum.
• This circulation can be achieved by two means:
natural circulation and forced circulation.
• Natural circulation of water takes place due to
difference in densities of cold water and hot water.
• In this type of circulation, saturated water comes
down the boiler drum by gravity through the down
comer tube, and reaches the bottom header of the
water tubes.
• As the heat is absorbed by the riser tube, the water
partially boils with the formation of bubbles/steam
and then flows back to the boiler drum.
• The density of the steam water mixture in the riser
tube is lower than the density of the saturated water
in the down comer.
• This difference in density sets up circulation current
from the down comer to the riser to the drum.
• As the steam formation takes place, the water
loss is compensated by the continuous supply of
feed water to the drum, and the wet steam from
the boiler drum is taken through the super
heater and finally for use in the turbine.
• The difference in density of the saturated liquid
and the saturated vapour decreases with
increase in the boiler pressure.
• This difference in density becomes zero when
the steam pressure reaches a critical value Pc.
• Hence, at this critical pressure (180 bar) the natural
circulation of water completely stops.
• In such situations the water has to be subjected to forced
circulation.
• For this purpose a circulation pump is used in the down
comer line.
• The flow rate of the saturated water in the down comer and
the flow rate of steam from the boiler drum are related by
the term circulation ratio.
• It is given by the relation,

Flow rate of saturated water in the down comers

C. R =
-----------------------------------------------------------------
Flow rate of steam released from the boiler

• The circulation ratio should be kept between 6 and 25.

• Types of High Pressure Boilers

• The different types of high pressure boilers are:

1. La Mont Boiler

2. Loeffler Boiler

3. Benson Boiler

4. Velox Boiler

5. Schmidt Hartmann Boiler

1. La Mont Boiler
• This boiler is designed to generate about 50

tones of superheated steam up to a pressure of

150 bar and 500°C. Fig. shows the schematic
diagram of a La Mont boiler, illustrating the flow
of water, steam and flues.
La Mont Boiler
• The feed water from the hot water sump is
supplied to the boiler drum, at a high pressure
(about 2.5 bar higher than the boiler pressure).
• The water is passed through the economiser to
improve the thermal efficiency, by utilising the
waste flues.
• Forced circulation of the water is maintained by
the circulating pump from the boiler drum
through the evaporator tubes, and back to the
drum.
• The pumped water is distributed by a distribution
header to a set of nozzles into the radiant
evaporator, which then flows to the convective
evaporator.
• The amount of water circulated by this pump is about
10 times of evaporation taking place in the
evaporators.
• This prevents ·the over heating of the evaporator
tubes.
• The wet steam generated in the evaporators is
collected in the boiler drum. The dry steam is
separated in the boiler drum, which then passes
through a super heater to obtain the superheated
steam, and finally to the steam turbine.
2. Loeffler Boiler
• One of the main problems in the La Mont boiler
is the salt deposition on the inner surface of the
water tubes.
• The salt deposited not only reduces the heat
transfer efficiency, but also increases the
danger of overheating of the tubes.
• This problem was over come in the Loeffler
boiler design.
• This boiler can raise about 100 tones of steam
per hour and up to a pressure of 140 bar.
• The steam drum of this boiler is located away
from the furnace.
• The feed water is pumped to the boiler drum
through the economizer.
• The drum is also connected to the super heated
steam line which converts the pumped water in
the drum into saturated steam.
• This saturated steam is circulated by a pump to
the radiant and convective super heaters.
• This steam flows to the prime movers and a part
of this is used in the drum for evaporating the
water in it.
3. Benson Boiler (Once Through Boiler)
• Benson boiler is another innovative design that
eliminated the salt and water bubble formation
in the evaporator tubes as in the La Mont boiler.
• The specialty of this boiler is that there is no boiler
drum.
• This boiler is also known as Once through boiler,
since the feed water is converted directly into
superheated steam through the pipe lines and
evaporators without being stored in drums.
• This boiler can work with a capacity of 150 tones per
hour, up to a pressure of 500 bar and a temperature
of 650°C.
• The special feature of this type of boiler is that there is no
steam drum in it.
• The feed water is pumped to the economizer, which flows
through the radiant evaporator tubes and is evaporated
partially.
• The wet steam generated then passes through the
convective intermediate evaporator where it is converted
into saturated high pressure steam (225 bar).
This steam finally passes through the super heater and to
the steam turbine.
Merits of Benson Boiler
1) The total boiler cost and weight is less as there is
no steam drum.
2) A Benson boiler occupies lesser space area.
3) All the joints in Benson boiler are welded and
because of lesser number of components the
erection is faster.
4) As this boiler works at a high pressure of 250 bar
there is no danger of bubble formation even when
sudden fall of demand occurs.
5) Possibility of explosion does not raise as there is no
boiler drum.
6) Benson boiler can be started very quickly from cold.
Demerits of Benson Boiler
1) It has low steam, capacity and hence not
suitable for high power outputs.
2) There are possibilities of overheating of
economizer, evaporator and super heater, in
cases of feed water pump problems in running
conditions.
3) It can not meet sudden, raise, in demand.
4. Velox Boiler
• This boiler design makes use of pressurized
combustion, to achieve a higher rate of heat
transfer from a smaller surface area.
• The special feature of this boiler is that the flue
gases are expanded in a gas turbine before
being discharged to the atmosphere, which
runs an axial flow compressor.
• The axial flow compressor is used to pressurize
the atmospheric air to the operating furnace
pressure to facilitate pressurized combustion.
• The compressor is driven by the gas turbine with
reduction gears (as the turbine speed is very
high).
• This system thus makes efficient use of the fuel
in a smaller area for heat transfer.
• In the steam line, the feed water from the
economizer passes through a steam separating
unit.
• The steam is separated due to the centrifugal
effect of the water entering through the spiral
flow arrangement.
• The separated water is then fed to the
evaporator by a water circulating pump.
• The steam separated in the separator as well as
the steam from the evaporator together enter the
super heater.
• This superheated steam finally passes to the
prime mover for operation.
5. Schmidt - Hartmann Boiler
• This boiler makes use of two steam pressure
circuits to raise the steam.
• A closed primary steam circuit is used to evaporate
the water in the secondary circuit and the steam
produced in the secondary circuit is used for running
the prime mover.
• The closed primary circuit uses-distilled water and
the steam is raised at a pressure of about 100 bar.
• This steam is used to generate steam in the
secondary or main evaporator.
• This is achieved by the submerged heating coils in
the evaporator of the primary circuit.
• Then the condensate of this circuit is used to preheat
the feed water of the secondary circuit, and finally
flows back to the primary evaporator.
• The primary circuit also includes a steam separator
and a non-return valve as shown in figure.
• The preheated feed water in the secondary circuit
then passes to the main evaporator and the generated
steam at about 60 bar is superheated in the super
heater and finally passed to the prime mover.
• The flow in the primary circuit, however, takes place
due to the natural circulation.
Methods of Feed Water Treatment
• The basic objective of the feed water treatment is to
remove the suspended, solid and dissolved
impurities from it before being supplied to boiler.
• The dissolved impurities in the feed water can be
removed either before supplying to the boiler by
External Treatment or-by Internal Treatment after
supplying to the boiler.
• a) Internal Treatment
• b) External Water Treatment .
a) Internal Treatment
• This treatment is given to the feed water to make
it chemically inactive and hence to prevent scale
formation, corrosion, priming, foaming and
embrittlement problems.
• This treatment is performed by adding chemicals
to the feed water either to precipitate the
impurities to form insoluble sludge or to convert
them into ineffective salts.
• The sludge can be later removed mechanically
from the boiler drum during shutdowns.
b) External Water Treatment
• The raw water needs external treatment when the
quantity of the make up water required is large and
contains suspended, dissolved and solid impurities.
• The suspended impurities are removed by
mechanical treatment, dissolved gases by thermal
treatment, and dissolved solids by chemical
(Zeolite) process.
• External methods include both mechanical and
thermal treatment processes.
Draught systems :
Draught systems are essential for flue gas
propagation.
Flue gas propagation is the process of movement of
the hot gases from the combustion chamber through
boiler pipes, economizer, air pre-heater and finally to
the chimney.
The function of draught is to supply required quantity
of air for combustion, propagate the flues and
remove the flues from the system.
A difference in pressure is required to move the
air through the fuel bed to produce a flow of hot
gases i.e., propagation of the flue gases through
the boiler, economizer, pre heater and to the
chimney by over coming the pressure losses in
the system.
This difference in pressure required to maintain
a constant flow of air, through the boiler systems
and finally to discharge the hot flues to the
atmosphere through chimney is termed the
draught.
Chimney:
The most common method to achieve this difference
in pressure, the draught, is to provide a chimney.
Chimney is a tall hollow structure, which creates the
required draught due to difference in pressure from
the ground level to some altitude in the atmosphere
(we know that the pressure drops as the altitude
increases. In a chimney, the higher pressure at the
ground level drives the flues to the low pressure area
at a higher altitude).
• Chimneys are made of steel, bricks or concrete.
• Brick and concrete chimneys are generally used
as they have a longer life.
• The average life of concrete chimneys is about 50
years.
• The life of steel chimneys is about 25 years,
which depends upon the maintenance and care
taken to prevent corrosion.
• Chimneys ere provided with lightning conductor to
protect from thunder lightning and aircraft warning
light as they are at higher altitudes.
Types of Draught systems

1. Natural Draught

2. Mechanical Draught

a) Forced Draught

b) Induced Draught

c) Balanced Draught
1. Natural Draught
• Natural draught is used in small capacity power
plants. The natural draught is created with the help
of a tall chimney.
• This mayor may not be sufficient to overcome the
losses in the system.
• Draught is caused by the difference in weight at a
column of cold external air and that of similar
column of hot gases in the chimney.
The performance of the system depends
primarily on the height of the chimney and the
average temperature of the hot gases in the
Advantages of Natural Draught
1) No external power is required to run the
system.

2) It requires small capital investment.

3) Maintenance costs are minimum.

4) The exhausts are discharged at a high altitude

and -hence atmosphere pollution is less at lower
levels.

5) The system has a long life.

Limitations
• 1) The maximum pressure created by natural draught
is very low (20mm of water).
• 2) For sufficient draught, the flue gases should be
discharged at a higher temperature, which reduces the
plant efficiency.
• 3) Economizer and pre heater cannot be used to
recover heat from the flue gases.
• 4) The system wilt have poor combustion efficiency,
since the velocity of air is low.
• 5) It cannot produce higher draughts under peak
loads, hence not flexible.
Mechanical Draught
• There are two types of mechanical draught
systems, depending upon the type of fan used
for creating the draught effect.
• If a forced draught fan is used it is termed a
forced draught system, and if an induced
draught fan is used it is termed an induced
draught system.
• In this system, a blower is provided before the
furnace.
• The blower forces the air through the furnace,
economiser, air preheater and finally to the stack.
• This system is termed a positive or forced draught
system, since the pressure throughout the system is
above atmospheric, and the flues are force driven.
• The function of chimney in this arrangement is only to
discharge the exhaust at high altitudes.
The chimney has got nothing to do with draught
creation and hence its height need not be too much,
but a higher altitude is desirable to discharge the flues
to minimise atmospheric pollution.
b) Induced Draught
• In this system, a blower is installed before the chimney
which sucks air into the system and creates a low
pressure condition below atmospheric pressure.
• This causes the air to be induced into· the furnace
through the entrance ports and hot gases flow through
the boiler, economizer, preheater, blower and· then
finally to the chimney.
• The action of induced draught is similar to the action
of natural draught chimney, but the draught produced
it independent of the temperature of hot gases.
Hence, maximum heat can be recovered in the air pre
heater and economizer, and comparatively cooler
gases can be discharged to the atmosphere.
Comparison between Forced Draught and Induced
Draught Systems
1) The induced draught handles a higher volume of gases at high
temperature, therefore the size of fan required and power to
drive it are larger as compared to· the forced draught system.
2) Water cooled bearings are required in induced draught system
since the hot gases come in contact with the fan.
3) There are chances of air leakage in the forced draught
system, since the pressure inside the furnace is above
atmospheric. In the induced draught, the pressure is below
atmospheric (suction), hence there are no chances of leakage.
4) In the induced draught system, air flow is more uniform
through the grate and furnace, as compared to the forced
draught system.
5) In an induced draught system, cold air may rush into the
furnace while fuel charging doors are opened. This cold air
rush will reduce the heat transfer efficiency.
6) The fan blade wear is more in induced draught system as the
blades come in contact with hot gases.
c) Balanced Draught
• Balanced draught is a combination of both forced
draught and induced draught.
• In this system, both forced draught and induced
draught fans are used, thus eliminating the difficulties
of forced draught and induced draught systems.
• The forced draught fan provided at the entry to the
furnace supplies the air through the fuel bed/grate,
while the induced draught fan sucks in the hot flues
from the furnace and discharges them at the chimney.
• Forced draught supplies sufficient air for combustion
and induced draught prevents blow off flames when
the doors are opened.
Advantages of Mechanical Draught over Natural
Draught
1) In a mechanical draught system, the rate of combustion is high
since high draught is available.
2) The rate of air flow, hence the combustion can be controlled by
changing the draught pressures through the fan operations.
3) The operation of the mechanical draught system does not
depend on the environmental temperature. However, the
natural draught is highly dependent on the environmental
temperature.
4) Low grade fuels can be easily burnt in mechanical draught
system since a higher level of draught is available in a
mechanical draught system.
5) In mechanical draughts, maximum heat can be recovered and
hence the overall efficiency is higher.
6) The chimney height need not be as high as that of natural
draught as its function is only to discharge the flues.
Calculation of Chimney Height
• The amount of natural draught produced in a furnace depends
upon the height of the chimney and the differences between the
temperatures of flues and the atmospheric air.
• Thus to obtain a desired amount of draught it is essential to
determine the height of a chimney based on the, temperature
conditions of the fuels arid atmospheric air.
• The height of chimney can be calculated as below.
Let, H = Height of the chimney, m
W = Weight of air required/kg of fuel, kg
Ta = Absolute temperature of air, Kelvin
Tg = Absolute temperature of the flues, Kelvin
The weight of the flue gases produced per kg of fuel = (W+1) kg
We know that, volume of chimney gases at 273 K = Volume of 1
kg of air at 273 K
29.27x273
Since, V = RT / P = 1.03xl04
= O.7758 m3
• Hence, volume of W kg of air at T a K is given by
the relation,
• V = O.7758xTa x W m3
• 273
• and Density of air at Ta K is given by,
• Pa = W x 273 / O.7758 x Ta x W
• 353 -- kg/m3
• Ta
• Similarly, Density of flue gases at Ta K is,
• (W +1) x 273
• = O.7758xTg x W
• (W +1) x 353 kg/m3
• W Tg
• We know, pressure due to a column of air at height H,
• p = p H kg/m2
• Similarly, pressure due to a column of hot gases at
height H,
• p = p H kg/m2
• By definition, draught is equal to difference of pressure,
• and P = Pa - Pg
• = H (p - P )
• = H ( 353 _ (W + 1) X 353 )
• Ta W Tg

• P = 353 H [ 1 _ (W + 1) ] kg/m2
• Ta W x Tg

• where, P is the theoretical or static draught.

• If the draught P is measured in terms of water
column h, then
• hw = 353 H [ 1 _ (W + 1) ] mm of water
• Ta W x Tg
• Draught Head in terms of column of hot gases
• Let hg = height of column of hot gases in meters
equivalent to draught P
Boiler Accessories
• A boiler requires many accessories for continuous
trouble-free functioning and steam generation.
• Some accessories are needed to increase the
efficiency of the boiler.
• High economy in power generation can be achieved
by utilising the heat energy to the maximum extent.
• The typical heat utilisation in the boiler furnace is of
the order of 70% only.
• That means about 30% of the heat is carried by the
exhaust gases, which constitutes a huge loss, if
discharged directly to the atmosphere.
• There are various means to recover part of this heat
energy.
• Some of the essential boiler accessories useful for
waste heat recovery, in the sequence, are as
follows:
1. Super heater
2. Re heater
3. Economizer
4. Air pre heater
• The temperature of the hot gases burnt in the
furnace is of the order of 1200°C to 13500C,
depending upon the quality of the coal used for
combustion.
• About 70% of the heat is utilised in the furnace to
heat the water tubes to raise steam, and the flues
are still at a higher temperature about 650 0.
The rest of the heat is
then utilised in super heater, reheater, economiser
and air pre heater.
• When the flues pass out of the super heater,
reheater and economizer, the temperature of the
hot gases is about 4000C.
The heat available from these
gases is then utilised in the air pre heater, and exit
the pre heater at about 160°C.
With this utilisation of
the hot gases, the efficiency of the plant is
improved to a great extent.
Other essential accessories include:
1. De super heater
2. Soot blower
• These principle of operation of these accessories
Super heater
• As the name implies, the function of a super
heater is to superheat the steam coming from
the boiler.
• The steam generated in a boiler is not fully
saturated, it contains some water particles
(dryness fraction will be less than 1).
• If used directly, the water particles in the wet
steam cause corrosion of the turbine blades, lead
to reduced turbine efficiency, life and later failure
of the blades itself.
• The super heater completely saturates the wet
steam (produces dry steam) and increases its
temperature.
A superheated steam has high heat content, and
hence has an increased capacity to do work.
• This in turn improves the overall efficiency of the
power plant.
• The super heaters are made of steel tubes of 25 to
50 mm diameter, and formed in series of U
shapes.
• Super heaters can be classified based on the
heat transfer method.
• There are three types of super heaters, as
follows:
1) Convective super heater-
• absorbs heat from the hot gases by convection.
• This is the primary super heater, that receives
nearly saturated steam from the boiler drum.
• Tills super heater is located in the convective
zone of the furnace, just before the economizer.
 2.) Radiant super heater
- absorbs heat from the hot gases by radiation.
• This is the secondary super heater, that receives
steam from the primary super heater.
• This super heater is located in the radiant zone of
the furnace, adjacent to tile water wall so that it
absorbs heat by radiation from the hot gases .
3.) Combined convective and radiant super
heater - absorbs heat both by convection and
radiation from the hot gases.
This is also termed the pendant super heater, and
is another secondary super heater used in a
steam power plants.
Usually the steam from the radiant super heater
passes through a de super heater, where high
quality water is directly sprayed on to the steam.
The de super heater
maintains the required temperature in the steam
after passing through the final stage or the
Re heaters
• In a boiler, the super heaters are used to superheat
the steam before being expanded in the high pressure
(HP) turbine.
• The steam from the HP turbine loses the pressure and
temperature.
• This steam before being sent to the next stage
(intermediate IP or low pressure LP) turbine, it need to
be improved again.
• This is done by passing this steam through a re
heater.
• Thus, a re heater is similar to a super heater, except
that it adds heat to the steam coming out of the HP
turbine, before being expanded in the IP or LP
turbine.
• A re heater is generally located above the primary
or convective super heater in the path of the hot
flues.
• It is made of steel tubes mounted horizontally,
perpendicular to the flue direction.
Economizer
• The function of an economiser is to heat the feed
water, before being supplied to the boiler, using the
products of combustion discharged from the boiler.
• Generally feed water is heated 20-30°C below the
boiling point.
• The economiser makes use of waste flues; recovers
heat energy and hence the name economizer.

• Thus the economiser increases the boiler

efficiency.
• As an approximation, it is shown that the boiler
efficiency increases by 1% for every 6°C raise in the
• The flues passing through the economizer
chamber transfer the heat energy to the water
flowing through the steel tubes.
• The maximum temperature desirable is 20 –
300C below the boiling point, as at temperatures
above 85°C the steam bubbles begin to form
and the feed pump cannot supply steam-water
mixture properly.
• To overcome this problem the feed water pump
is generally located before the economizer.
• The feed water pump pumps either raw water
(after proper treatment) or condensate from the
condenser.
• The feed water flowing through the economizer
gets heated and enters the boiler under pressure.
• A non-return valve is provided to avoid return flow
of feed water or steam from the boiler, when the
feed pump is not in operation.
• The pump pressure is always higher (about 2 bar
more) an the boiler pressure in operation.
Advantages of Economiser
• 1) It recovers the waste heat to a greater extent.

• 2) It reduces the fuel consumption per unit

power produced.
• 3) It improves the efficiency of the power plant.

• 4) It reduces the soot and fly-ash being

discharged to atmosphere to some extent.

Air Pre heater:
The function of an air preheater, as the name
indicates, is to preheat the air being supplied to
the furnace for combustion.
This makes use of the flues discharged from the
furnace and from the economiser.
As this also recovers further heat from the flues, it
increases the boiler efficiency.
An increase in temperature of the 20°C increases
the boiler efficiency by 1 %.
• Some times, it can be considered as the secondary
function of an air pre heater to heat the air which is
being used to dry the coal (to remove the moisture)
in the pulverizing mills.
This helps in proper grinding of the coal and
further combustion of the pulverised coal.
• The air pre heaters can be classified as follows:
• 1. Recuperative pre heater
• a. Tubular type
• b. Plate type
• ·2. Regenerative pre heater
• a. Brick type .
• b. Rotary (Ljungstrom) type
1. Recuperative Air Pre heater
• The principle of operation of this type of pre
heater is similar to an economiser.
• In this type, the heat is directly transferred from
the hot flues to the air to be preheated, with an
intermediate heat transfer metallic medium.
• Based on the type of intermediate medium
construction used to transfer heat from the flues
to the air being heated ,there are two types of
recuperative pre heaters - tubular and plate
type.
• In tubular type; the flues pass through a
number of tubes and the air to be preheated
passes over the tubes.
• Tubular recuperative pre heater are usually
counter-flaw-type, with tube in shell arrangement.
• The hot flues flow downward through the tubes,
while the air to be preheated around the hot tubes,
and absorb the heat.
• Baffles are provided in the shell, so as to increase
the length air flow path around the tubes, and
maximize heat transfer from the hot flues.
• In plate type, a series of plates are arranged in
parallel in a chamber as shown in Fig.
• In this, the flues pass in between alternate plates,
while the air to be preheated by side of the
alternate plates.
2. Regenerative Air Preheater
• These are heat energy storage type pre heaters,
and contain some energy storage medium, termed
the matrix.
• This matrix is alternately exposed to flow of hot
flues and cold air to be preheated, thus completing
one operation in two cycles.
• In the first cycle, the hot flues flow through the
matrix, and the matrix absorb heat energy.
• In the next cycle, cold air passes over the hot
matrix and absorbs the heat.
• There are two types of pre heaters based on the
matrix used.
• The commonly used types are - brick type and the
rotary type.
a) Brick type Preheater
• In this the heat is first absorbed by a brick work,
which is then desorbed to a stream of cold air.
• The operation in this type of preheater is performed
into two cycles.
• In the first cycle hot flues pass over a checquer brick
work, and give out the heat to the bricks.
• Then in the other cycle, cold air is passed over these
hot bricks to recover the heat.
• The system consists of two checquer brick
constructions CB1 and CB2 as shown.
• It also consists of a valve which allows the air and
flues in opposite directions at position P1 and change
their directions simultaneously at position P2.
• The operation is performed in two cycles.
 First Cycle: The valve is at position P1 and the flues
enter the brick construction CB1, transfer the heat to them
and pass to chimney, during which the air-line to the
burner is closed.
Simultaneously, the air to be heated enters the brick
construction CB2 which has been heated in the previous
cycle.
The air absorbs the heat energy from the bricks and
passes to the burner line. During this the chimney line is
kept closed.
Second Cycle: During this cycle, the valve is at position
P2 and the above cycle is performed in reverse direction.
Now the flues enter the brick construction CB2 an heat the
bricks, and finally escape to the chimney.
• On the other side, the air to be heated enters the brick
work CB1, absorbs the heat and passes to the burner line.
Now the chimney line is kept closed.
Advantages

1) Combustion efficiency is improved.

2) Low grade fuels can be burnt successfully.

3) Steam rising capacity is increased.

4) Fuel consumption is reduced.

b) Rotary (Ljungstrom) type Pre heater

• The rotary or Ljungstrom air pre heater is a

simple, compact and effectively regenerative
system.
• The construction of a rotary preheater is shown
in Fig.
• It consists of a rotor with about 12 to 18 radial
sectors.
• Each sector is packed with plain or corrugated
steel metals plates.
• Two sectors, opposite to one another
Ljungstrom or rotary air preheater
• are left blank which act as a seal to prevent leakage of
air to hot flue side and vice versa.
• The rotor is rotated at a low speed (about 2 to 4 rpm).
• The hot flues and air flow through these sectors at
opposite zones. In the hot flue zone, the sectors
progressively-coming in contact with the hot gases
absorb heat and store .as sensible heat.
• As the heated sectors enter the air zone, they
progressively release the stored heat energy to the air,
thus heating it.
• At the same time the sectors that are cold (or already
released heat) progressively enter the hot zone and
start absorbing heat.
• This process of heat absorption from hot flues and
heat release to cold air continues.
Advantages
1) Rotary air pre heaters are simple and compact in
construction.
2) They operate continuously, and have good heat transfer
efficiency.
3) They are economical in operation.

Disadvantages
1) The sealing between flues and air zones, and vice-versa
is difficult.
2) Due its constructional features, the rotary air preheater
creates large pressure drops both for the hot flues and
the air, thereby consuming sufficient power.
3) Fly ash accumulation in the flue paths is a common
problem.
Desuperheater
• It is essential to control the superheat temperature,
otherwise it may lead to overheating of superheated
tubes and initial stages of the turbine, causing
operational problems.
• The device used to control the superheat temperature
is termed a desuperheater.
• The various methods used to control the superheat
temperatures are as follows:
• 1) Bypassing the hot gases. When the temperature of
the superheated steam raises' sufficiently high, then
the hot gases are bypassed with the help of dampers.
2) Tilting the burners : The direction of the burners
can be tilted when the steam temperature is high,
Thereby reducing the heat supply to the
superheaters. This, in turn reduces the steam
temperatures.
3) Desuperheater : Another method of controlling the
temperature of the superheated steam is by the use
of desuperheater. This uses a water spray to cool
the portion of the superheater section, when the
temperature of the steam is too high.
4) Immersion in the steam drum: In this method a
portion of the superheater is kept immersed in the
water of the boiler drum through a bypass valve.
Whenever the need for temperature control rises,
the superheated steam is diverted to the immersed
line by operating the bypass valve. In normal
operations the valve is kept closed.
Soot Blowers
• The products of combustion always carry soot with
them.
• Soot is a fine dust like particle, light in weight and
floats in gases. Soot is gradually collected on the
boiler tubes, economizer and air pre heater.
With the increase in thickness of the soot on the
tubes, the rate of heat transfer from the gases to
the tubes also reduces.
• This leads to increased consumption of fuel.
• To remove the soot from the surface of the tubes
soot-blowers are used.
• Soot blowers release high pressure steam or
compressed air through nozzles on to the tubes,
from where the soot is to be removed.
• The arrangement of the soot blower nozzles is done
depending upon the cleaning requirements.
• The soot blowing operation is done periodically.
• Cooling water is essential in a steam power plant to
condense the steam from the steam turbines.
• The quantity of cooling water required is so high that
it cannot be let out after use.
• A 100 MW plant needs about 10,000 tones of cooling
water per day.
• This necessitates the need for recirculation of the
cooling water.
• The used water absorbs heat from the condenser
and cannot be recirculated unless cooled to a
minimum temperature.
• This function of cooling is achieved by a structure
termed Cooling Tower.
 There are two types of cooling towers - wet
and dry type.
• In wet cooling towers, the turbine exhaust steam is
condensed in a condenser where the heat is
transferred to cooling water medium. This hot water is
cooled in cooling towers.
• Wet cooling tower is a large, tall structure from the top
of which the hot water from the condenser is allowed
to fall.
• The falling water comes in contact with air entering
from bottom and gets cooled.
• In the dry cooling towers, either the turbine exhaust
steam is directly condensed in the cooling tower, or
the hot water from the condenser is cooled in the
tower.
• Such cooling towers are used in plants where
sufficient cooling water is available.
• Cooling towers are built with either wood, steel or
concrete.
• For large power plants, generally concrete
structures of hyperbolic shape are used.
• Because these provide efficient cooling and have
high cooling capacities.
• The cooling towers can be either wet or dry type,
and are classified based on the type of air
draught used cool the water.
• The different types of cooling towers used in
power plants are:
1. Wet type
• a) Natural draught cooling tower
• b) Forced draught cooling tower
• c) Induced draught cooling tower

2. Dry type
• a) Direct type
• b) Indirect type
Natural Draught Cooling Tower – Wet type

• This is a wet type of cooling tower, and is

generally used in large capacity power plants.
• It consists of a huge hyperbolic concrete
structure, with openings at the bottom.
• At the lowest portion of the structure a water
pond is constructed for the collection of the
cooling water.
• In operation, the cooling water from the
condenser is to the top of the cooling tower.
• The water is sprayed from the top, and falls
sprinkles.
• Because of the height, natural draught is created
and the air rises bottom.
• The falling water comes in contact with the rising
air and gets cooled water is collected in the pond
and pumped back to the condenser.
• Make up water is added to the pond periodically.
• The height of the cooling tower ranges from 50 m
to 80 m, with base diameter up to 40 m.
Forced Draught Cooling Tower· Wet type

• Forced draught cooling towers are smaller in

size and are used in small capacity power
plants.
• Since the height of the cooling tower is smaller
and it has a rectangular section, the natural
draught created very low.
• Hence, to create a draught, a forced draught a
fan is provided at the bottom
• The cooling tower is a rectangular section having
baffles / obstruction at the centre.
• A forced draught fan is provided at the bottom, and
it pressurises the air.
• The hot water from the condenser is sprayed from
the top and while falling through the
baffles/obstacles it comes in contact with the
raising forced draught air and gets cooled.
• The cooled water is collected in the pond and
recirculated.
• Make up water is added to the pond periodically.
Induced Draught Cooling Tower - Wet type
• This is similar in construction and operation to a
forced draught cooling tower, except for the induced
draught fan.
• This is suitable for small capacity power plants.
• It has a rectangular section with opening at the
bottom for the air entry.
• In operation the induced draught fan sucks air
through the baffles from the openings at the bottom
of the tower.
• The hot water pumped from the condenser is
sprayed at the top.
• The falling water comes in contact with the raising
air and gets cooled.
• The cooled water is collected in the pond and
pumped back to the condenser.
• Make up water is added periodically to the pond.
Dry type direct cooling tower
• In this, the exhaust steam is collected in a large
steam header at the top.
• A number of steel tubes are connected to the
steam header, through which the steam is
passed to the condensate header at the bottom.
The steam tubes are provided with external fins,
so as to increase the heat transfer rate and
hence condense the steam in the tubes.
• The steam condenses as water in the
condensate headers, and is collected in a
condensate tank.
• From the tank the water is pumped to the feed
water line.
Indirect Dry Cooling Tower
• There are three types of indirect dry cooling
towers.
• a) Indirect dry cooling tower with a conventional
surface condenser
• This cooling tower uses two heat exchangers in
series.
• The first one is the conventional surface
condenser, where the turbine exhaust steam is
condensed using cooling water as the coolant.
• The condensate is used as feed water.
• The second heat exchanger is the hot water to air
heat exchanger, in which the hot water from the
surface condenser is cooled with the help of
finned tubing similar to the dry cooling tower
concept.
• The steam at temperature Ts from the turbine is
first condensed in the surface condenser.
• At this heat exchanger by absorbing heat from
steam, the water temperature raises from T1 to T2.
• The hot water is (at T2) then passed through a
series of steel tubes in the dry cooling tower.
• The steel tubing are provided with external fins, so
as to increase the heat transfer rate and hence cool
the hot water in the tubes.
• The cooling is assisted in the tower with the help of
two 10 fans (or a large hyperbolic natural draught
tower can also be used, depending upon the
cooling requirements).
• At this cooling tower, the water temperature
drops from T2 to T1 Since the heat is absorbed
by the cooling air, the air gains temperature from
T3 to T4.
• These temperature path lengths at the
condenser and the cooling tower are shown in
Fig.
• Another variant of this cooling tower uses
ammonia as the coolant in the surface·
condenser to condense the steam.
• After absorbing heat from steam, the ammonia
evaporates, which is then cooled / condensed in
the cooling tower.
• The condensed ammonia is recirculated to the
steam condenser.
b) Indirect dry cooling tower with a open type
condenser
• The construction and operation of this cooling
tower is same as the dry indirect cooling tower
with surface condenser, except that it uses a
open spray type condenser instead of the
surface condenser.
• Thus this cooling tower also uses two heat
exchangers in series.
• The first one is a direct contact spray type
steam condenser, where the turbine exhaust
steam is condensed using cooling water.
• The second heat exchanger is indirect type, the
hot water to air heat exchanger, in which the hot
water from the condenser is cooled with the help
of finned tubing similar to the dry cooling tower
concept.
• A part of the hot water is used as feed water.
• The steam at a higher temperature from the
turbine is first condensed in the spray type
condenser.
• At this heat exchanger by mixing with steam, the
water
• temperature raises from T1 to T2 (water-steam
mixture attains the same temperature.
• The hot water is (at T2) then passed through a
series of steel tubes in the drying tower.
• The steel tubing are provided with external fins,
so as to increase the transfer rate and hence
cool the hot water in the tubes.
• The cooling is assisted in tower with the help of
two ID fans (or a large hyperbolic natural
draught tower also be used, depending upon the
cooling requirements).
• At this cooling tower, the water temperature
drops from T2 to T1.
• Since the heat is absorbed by the cooling he air
gains temperature from T3 to T4.
• These temperature path lengths at the
condenser and the cooling tower.
Other Essential Systems

• Automatic Combustion Control

• The purpose of automatic combustion control is
to maintain constant steam pressure and
uniform draught.
• it regulates the supply of air and fuel
automatically to suit the changes in the demand.
• Automatic combustion control increases the
combustion efficiency and reduces the manual
labour.
• The master controller relay R1 connected to the
steam pressure gauge is sensitive to variations
in steam pressure.
• A drop in the steam pressure is sensed by the
relay R1, and activates the master controller.
• This in turn generates a signal to operates the
servo motor coupled to the vanes of the induced
draft fan.
• The vanes are opened in . proportion to the
steam pressure drop sensed.
• Simultaneously, another servomotor opens the
damper of the secondary air fan, proportionately.
• These cause changes in the draught conditions,
which is sensed by relay R2, which activates the
servomotor of the forced draft vanes and adjusts
them suitably for stable combustion conditions.
• This leads to an increased air flow through
passage, which activates relay R3.
• This causes the stoker motor to supply additional
fuel to the furnace.
• All these actions in all lead to higher fuel supply
and steam generation, and continue till the supply
pressure is brought to the normal pressure.
• Similarly, an increase in the steam pressure causes
a reversed action of the above processes, and
reduce the fuel supply and hence steam
generation.
• The products of combustion in a furnace consist of
fly ash, dust and smoke.
• These are the solid particles suspended in the flues. The
smoke is a result of incomplete combustion of the fuel.
This may be due to improper furnace design or
insufficient supply of air for complete combustion. The
smoke contains suspended particles of sizes less than
10 microns. The smoke and dust, if allowed to the
atmosphere, pollute the air and hence they should be
controlled and only. clean air should be discharged to the
atmosphere. For this purpose different types of collectors
are used. The common types of dust collectors are as
follows:
• 1. Mechanical dust collectors
• a. Gravitational & centrifugal separators
• b. Baghouse filters
• c. Cyclone separators
• 2. Electrostatic precipitators
1. Mechanical Dust collectors .
• These may be wet or dry types. In wet type, water
sprays are used to remove dust and fly ash from
the flues. These are also known as scrubbers.
a) Gravitational Dust Collectors
• Generally these are dry type and make use of the
gravity principle to separate the dust particles from
the exhaust gases.
• The increase in cross sectional area reduces the
velocity of the gases.
• This reduction in velocity causes the heavier dust
particles separate from the flues and fall down.
• The change in the direction of the flues causes
the heavier particles to separate from the flues.
• The baffles (obstruction) in the path of the flues
cause the separation of heavier particles front
the flue gases.
• In the cinder-vane fan, the dust is separated
from the flue gases by the action of centrifugal
forces.
• The heavier particles are thrown out to the
periphery by the centrifuge action, and are
hence separated.
b) Bag house Filters
• They consists of a series of filter bags
arranged in a big room.
• The dust filled flues while passing through
the bags are filtered and dust free gases
are let-out at the top as shown.
• The materials used for the filter bags are
cotton, nylon, fiberglass or Teflon.
c) Cyclone Dust collector
• In this the flues from the furnace enter a conical
shell at a high velocity, tangentially.
• This results in a whirling action of the gas with dust,
and throws the heavier particles to the sides.
The dust free gases rise to the top and are
discharged to the atmosphere.
2. Electrostatic Precipitator (Fly ash
handling)
• The use of high ash content coal increases the fly
ash problem.
• Fly ash are the fine ash particles that fly along with
the hot flues.
• Electrostatic precipitators are widely used for
removing and handling fly ash from the flues.
Electrostatic precipitator
It consists of two electrodes maintaining an
electrostatic field between them at a voltage.
The potential supplied is of the order of 30-50 kV DC.
When the dust , gases pass through these electrodes,
the electric field ionizes the dust particles, both
negative (about 20%) and positive (about 80%)
charged particles are formed ionized particles are
attracted by the electrodes of opposite charges, and
get deposited on to the metal electrodes.
 The electrodes are periodically vibrated, so that
dust particles accumulated on the electrodes fall
down, and is collected in a dust collector at the
bottom.
Advantages
• 1) It separates fine particles effectively.
• 2) It creates negligible draft loss.
• 3) Maintenance is minimum.
• 4) Operation is simple and faster.
• 5) It has high efficiency of operation.
Disadvantages
• 1) Initial investment is high.
• 2) More electrical accessories and maintenance
is required.

Coal Storage
• The fuel ,consumption in a steam power plant is
very high.
• A 100 MW power plant consumers about 1500
tones of coal per day. Hence, it is essential to
store a large quantity of coal inside the power
plant.
• However, storage of coal in large quantities is not
easy as it involves the risk of spontaneous
combustion, weathering losses, also investment
on materials, land and maintenance.
• The quantity of coal to be stored depends upon
many factors like availability of land, distance of
the coal source, transportation facilities available,
and size of the plant.
• The site selection for coal storage is based on
many factors.
Some important factors include:
1) The site should be free from still water.
2) The site should be free from materials having low
ignition temperature such as oil, wood, paper and
cotton.
3) The site should be, accessible for easy
transportation.
4) The site should be away from heat sources like
steam pipes, and hot water discharge pipes.
5) The site should be equipped with fire fighting
equipments.
6) The site should be at a higher level.
7) The site should be dry and hard, so as to prevent air
and water flow from the bottom
8)The site should not be subjected to alternate wet
and dry conditions, or it should not have highly
fluctuating weather conditions.
Methods of Coal Storage
1.Storing in Heaps
• In this method the coal is stored in heaps up to 10
meters high and about 500 to 1000 meters long on a
dry, strong' and high level ground.
• The coal is compacted for layers of 0.15 to 0.30 m
high by bulldozers.
• The pile top is given a gentle slope to drain off water.
Asphalt or coal dust is used to cover the pile to
prevent air circulation.
2. Under water storage
• The method of storing coal in heaps (as piles) has got
the danger of slow oxidation and spontaneous
combustion.
• This can be avoided by storing coal under the water.

• The coal is kept in basins where the water is allowed

to flow slowly at a steady rate.
 Introduction to Boiler
• Enclosed Pressure
Vessel
• Heat generated by
Combustion of Fuel is
transferred to water to
become steam
• Process: Evaporation
• Steam volume increases
to 1,600 times from water
and produces tremendous
force
• Boiler to be extremely
dangerous equipment.
Care is must to avoid
explosion.
What are the various heating surfaces in
a boiler?
Heating surface is expressed in square feet or in
square meter
Classified into :
1 Radiant Heating Surfaces — (direct or primary)
including all water-backed surfaces that are directly exposed to
the radiant heat of the combustion flame.
2 Convected Heating Surfaces — ( indirect or
secondary) including all those water-backed surfaces
exposed only to hot combustion gases.
3 Extended Heating Surfaces — referring to the surface
of economizers and super heaters used in certain types of water
tube boilers.
Fuels used in Boiler
S. Solid Liquid Gaseous AgroWaste
No
1 Coal HSD NGas Baggase
2 Lignite LDO Bio Gas Pith
3 Fur.Oil Rice Husk
4 LSHS Paddy
5 Coconut shell
6 Groundnutshell
 Indian Boiler Regulation
IBR Steam Boilers IBR Steam Pipe means
means any closed vessel any pipe through which
exceeding 22.75 liters in steam passes from a
capacity and which is used boiler to a prime mover or
expressively for generating other user or both, if
steam under pressure and pressure at which steam
includes any mounting or other passes through such
fitting attached to such vessel, pipes exceeds 3.5 kg/cm2
which is wholly, or partly under above atmospheric
pressure when the steam is pressure or such pipe
shut off. exceeds 254 mm in
internal diameter and
includes in either case any
connected fitting of a
As per section 28 & 29 of the steam pipe.
Indian Boilers Act.
 Boiler Types and Classifications
• Fire in tube or Hot gas through
tubes and boiler feed water in shell
Fire Tube Boiler
side
• Fire Tubes submerged in water
Application
• Used for small steam capacities
( up to 12000 kg/hr and
17.5kg/cm2)

Merits
• Low Capital Cost and fuel Efficient
(82%)
• Accepts wide & load fluctuations
• Steam pressure variation is less
(Large volume of water)
• Packaged Boiler
• Package boilers are Packaged Boiler
generally of shell type with
fire tube design
• High heat release rate in
small combustion space
 More number of passes-so
more heat transfer
 Large number of small
diameter tubes leading to
good convective heat
transfer.
 Higher thermal efficiency
 Thermal power Station Boiler

• 90% of coal-fired power boiler in the world is Pulverized type

 Pulverized Fuel Boiler (Contd..)
Advantages
• Its ability to burn all ranks of coal from anthracitic to
lignitic, and it permits combination firing (i.e., can use
coal, oil and gas in same burner). Because of these
advantages, there is widespread use of pulverized
coal furnaces.
Disadvantages
• High power demand for pulverizing
• Requires more maintenance, fly ash erosion and
pollution, complicate unit operation
 Fluidized bed Combustion (FBC) boiler
When an evenly distributed air or gas is passed upward through a
finely divided bed of solid particles such as sand supported on a fine
mesh, the particles are undisturbed at low velocity. As air velocity is
gradually increased, a stage is reached when the individual particles
are suspended in the air stream
Further, increase in velocity gives rise
to bubble formation, vigorous
turbulence and rapid mixing and the
bed is said to be fluidized.

Coal is fed continuously in to a hot air

agitated refractory sand bed, the coal
will burn rapidly and the bed attains a
uniform temperature

Fluidized Bed Combustion

 Fluidized-bed boiler (Contd..)
Advantages :
• Higher rates of heat transfer between
combustion process and boiler tubes (thus
reduced furnace area and size required),
• combustion temperature 850oC is lower than in a
conventional furnace. The lower furnace
temperatures means reduced NOx production.
• In addition, the limestone (CaCO3) and dolomite
(MgCO3) react with SO2 to form calcium and
magnesium sulfides, respectively, solids which
do not escape up the stack; This means the plant
can easily use high sulfur coal.
• Fuel Flexibility: Multi fuel firing

Circulating Fluidized Bed Boiler

Performance Evaluation of Boilers
 What are the factors for poor efficiency?
Efficiency reduces
1. with time,
2. due to poor combustion,
3. heat transfer fouling and
4. poor operation and maintenance.
5. Deterioration of fuel and water quality also leads
to poor performance of boiler.
 Feed Water Preheating using Economizer
• For an older shell boiler,
with a flue gas exit
temperature of 260oC, an
economizer could be
used to reduce it to
200oC, Increase in overall
thermal efficiency would
be in the order of 3%.
• Condensing
economizer(N.Gas) Flue
gas reduction up to 65oC

6oC raise in feed water temperature, by economiser / condensate

recovery, corresponds to a 1% saving in fuel consumption
 Combustion Air Preheating

• Combustion air preheating is an alternative

to feed water heating.

• In order to improve thermal efficiency by

1%, the combustion air temperature must be
raised by 20 oC.
 Incomplete Combustion
•  Incomplete combustion can arise from a shortage of air or
surplus of fuel or poor distribution of fuel.
•  In the case of oil and gas fired systems, CO or smoke with
normal or high excess air indicates burner system problems.
Example: Poor mixing of fuel and air at the burner. Poor oil fires
can result from improper viscosity, worn tips, carbonization on tips
and deterioration of diffusers.
• With coal firing: Loss occurs as grit carry-over or carbon-in-ash
(2% loss).
Example :In chain grate stokers, large lumps will not burn out completely,
while small pieces and fines may block the air passage, thus causing poor
air distribution.
Increase in the fines in pulverized coal also increases carbon loss.
 Control excess air
for every 1% reduction in excess air ,0.6% rise in efficiency.

The optimum excess air level varies with furnace design,

type of burner, fuel and process variables.Install oxygen
trim system
Table 2.5 Excess air levels for different fuels

Fuel Type of Furnace or Burners Excess Air

(% by wt)
Pulverised coal Completely water-cooled furnace for slag- 15-20
tap or dry-ash removal
Partially water-cooled furnace for dry-ash 15-40
removal
Coal Spreader stoker 30-60
Water-cooler vibrating-grate stokers 30-60
Chain-grate and traveling-gate stokers 15-50
Underfeed stoker 20-50
Fuel oil Oil burners, register type 5-10
Multi-fuel burners and flat-flame 10-30
Wood Dutch over (10-23% through grates) and 20-25
Hofft type
Bagasse All furnaces 25-35
Black liquor Recovery furnaces for draft and soda- 5-7
pulping processes
 Radiation and Convection Heat Loss
• The surfaces lose heat to the surroundings depending
on the surface area and the difference in temperature
between the surface and the surroundings.
 
• The heat loss from the boiler shell is normally a fixed
energy loss, irrespective of the boiler output. With
modern boiler designs, this may represent only 1.5%
on the gross calorific value at full rating, but will
increase to around 6%, if the boiler operates at only 25
percent output.

• Repairing or augmenting insulation can reduce heat

loss through boiler walls
Automatic Blow down Control

• Uncontrolled continuous blow down is very

wasteful.
• Automatic blow down controls can be
installed that sense and respond to boiler
water conductivity and pH.
• A 10% blow down in a 15 kg/cm2 boiler
results in 3% efficiency loss.
Reduction of Boiler Steam Pressure
•  Lower steam pressure gives a lower saturated steam
temperature and without stack heat recovery, a similar
reduction in the temperature of the flue gas temperature
results. Potential 1 to 2% improvement.
• Steam is generated at pressures normally dictated by
the highest pressure / temperature requirements for a
particular process. In some cases, the process does not
operate all the time, and there are periods when the
boiler pressure could be reduced.
• Adverse effects, such as an increase in water carryover
from the boiler owing to pressure reduction, may negate
any potential saving.
• Pressure should be reduced in stages, and no more than
a 20 percent reduction should be considered.