University of Gondar

College of medicine and health science

Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics

• Sampling Techniques & sample size

determination
Prepared By: Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics

• December, 2018

University
of Gondar, Ethiopia

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 Sampling
It is not easy to collect all the information
about population and also it is not possible to
study the characteristics of the entire
population (finite or infinite) due to time factor,
cost factor and other constraints.
Thus we need sample.
Sample is a finite subset of statistical
individuals in a population and the number of
individuals in a sample is called the sample size.
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 Sample Information

Population

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 Common terms used in sampling
• Population: it is the collection of all items
of interest.
• Sampling: It is the method by which we
select a sample from the population
• Reference population (or target
population): the population of interest to
whom the researchers would like to make
generalizations.

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Advantages of sampling:

• Feasibility: Sampling may be the only feasible method of

collecting information.
• Reduced cost: Sampling reduces demands on resource such as
finance, personnel, and material.
• Greater accuracy: Sampling may lead to better accuracy of
collecting data
• Sampling error: Precise allowance can be made for sampling
error
• Greater speed: Data can be collected and summarized more
quickly.
Disadvantage
• There is always a sampling error
• Sampling may create a feeling of discrimination within the
population
• Sampling may be inadvisable where every unit in the
population is legally required to have a record.
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 Errors in sampling
1. Sampling error/ Random error
A sample is expected to mirror the population from
which it comes, however, there is no guarantee that
any sample will be precisely representative of the
population.
The uncertainty associated with an estimate that is
based on data gathered from a sample of the
population rather than the full population is known as
sampling error.
Sampling errors are the random variations in the
sample estimates around the true population
parameters.
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 Error sampling cont’d…
No sample is the exact mirror image of the population
Sampling error (chance )
Can not be avoided or totally eliminated
Sampling error decreases with the increase in the size
of the sample, and it happens to be of a smaller
magnitude in case of homogeneous population.
When n = N ⇒ sampling error = 0

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 Error in Sampling cont---
2. Non Sampling Error (Measurement Error)
It is a type of systematic error in the design or conduct
of a sampling procedure which results in distortion of
the sample, so that it is no longer representative of the
reference population.
We can eliminate or reduce the non-sampling error
(bias) by careful design of the sampling procedure and
not by increasing the sample size.
It can occur whether the total study population or a
sample is being used.

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 Sampling Methods
Two broad divisions:
A. Probability sampling methods
B. Non-probability sampling methods
A. Probability sampling methods
• Involves random selection of a sample
• Every sampling unit has a known and non-zero probability
of selection into the sample.
• Involves the selection of a sample from a population,
based on chance.
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 Types of Sampling Methods

Samples
Method

Probability Samples
Non-Probability
Samples

Snowball Simple Stratified

Random
Purposive Judgemental
Systematic Cluster

Convenience
Multistage Random Sampling
Quota
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 1. Simple random sampling
• The required number of individuals are selected at random from the
sampling frame, a list or a database of all individuals in the population .

• Each member of a population has an equal chance of being included in

the sample.
• To use a SRS method:
– Make a numbered list of all the units in the population i.e. Sampling
frame
– Each unit should be numbered from 1 to N (where N is the size of
the population)
– Select the required number.
• The randomness of the sample is ensured by:
• Use of “lottery’ methods
• Table of random numbers
• Computer programs
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 2. Systematic random sampling
• Sometimes called interval sampling
• Selection of individuals from the sampling frame
systematically rather than randomly
• Individuals are taken at regular intervals down the list
• The starting point is chosen at random
• Important if the reference population is arranged in
some order:
– Order of registration of patients
– Numerical number of house numbers
– Student’s registration books
• Taking individuals at fixed intervals (every kth) based on
the sampling fraction, eg. if the sample includes 20%,
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then every fifth.
 3. Stratified random sampling

• It is done when the population is known to be have

heterogeneity with regard to some factors and those
factors are used for stratification
• Using stratified sampling, the population is divided into
homogeneous, mutually exclusive groups called strata, and
• A population can be stratified by any variable that is
available for all units prior to sampling (e.g., age, sex,
province of residence, income, etc.).
• A separate sample is taken independently from each
stratum.
• Any of the sampling methods mentioned in this section (and
others that exist) can be used to sample within each
stratum.
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• Equal allocation:
– Allocate equal sample size to each stratum
• Proportionate allocation: n  n N
j j
N

– nj is sample size of the jth stratum

– Nj is population size of the jth stratum
– n = n1 + n2 + ...+ nk is the total sample size
– N = N1 + N2 + ...+ Nk is the total population size
• Example: proportionate allocation
• Village A B C D Total
• HHs 100 150 120 130 500
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S. size ? ? ? ? 60 14
 4. Cluster sampling
• Sometimes it is too expensive to carry out SRS
– Population may be large and scattered.
– Complete list of the study population unavailable
– Travel costs can become expensive if interviewers have to
survey people from one end of the country to the other.
• Cluster sampling is the most widely used to reduce the
cost
• The clusters should be homogeneous, unlike stratified
sampling where the strata are heterogeneous

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 Example
• In a school based study, we assume students of
the same school are homogeneous.

• We can select randomly sections and include all

students of the selected sections only

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 5. Multi-stage sampling
• Similar to the cluster sampling, except that it
involves picking a sample from within each
chosen cluster, rather than including all units in
the cluster.
• This type of sampling requires at least two stages.
• The primary sampling unit (PSU) is the sampling
unit in the first sampling stage.
• The secondary sampling unit (SSU) is the
sampling unit in the second sampling stage, etc.
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 Woreda PSU

Kebele SSU

Sub-Kebele TSU

HH

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 B. Non-probability sampling
• In non-probability sampling, every item has an
unknown chance of being selected.

• In non-probability sampling, there is an assumption

that there is an even distribution of a characteristic of
interest within the population.

• For probability sampling, random is a feature of the

selection process.
• This is what makes the researcher believe that any
sample would be representative and because of that,
results will be accurate.
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 The most common types of non-probability sampling

1. Convenience or haphazard sampling

2. Volunteer sampling
3. Judgment sampling
4. Quota sampling
5. Snowball sampling technique

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 1. Convenience or haphazard sampling
• Convenience sampling is sometimes referred to as
haphazard or accidental sampling.

• It is not normally representative of the target population

because sample units are only selected if they can be
accessed easily and conveniently.

• The obvious advantage is that the method is easy to use,

but that advantage is greatly offset by the presence of bias.

• Although useful applications of the technique are limited,

it can deliver accurate results when the population is
homogeneous.
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 2. Volunteer sampling
• As the term implies, this type of sampling occurs when
people volunteer to be involved in the study.

• In psychological experiments or pharmaceutical trials

(drug testing), for example, it would be difficult and
unethical to enlist random participants from the general
public.

• In these instances, the sample is taken from a group of

volunteers.

• Sometimes, the researcher offers payment to attract

respondents.
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 3. Judgment sampling

• This approach is used when a sample is taken based on

certain judgments about the overall population.

• The underlying assumption is that the investigator will

select units that are characteristic of the population.

• The critical issue here is objectivity: how much can

judgment be relied upon to arrive at a typical sample?
• Judgment sampling is subject to the researcher's
biases.

• One advantage of judgment sampling is the reduced

cost and time involved in acquiring the sample.
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 Quota sampling

 It is the non probability equivalent of stratified sampling.

 Like stratified sampling, the researcher first identifies the

stratums and their proportions as they are represented in
the population.

 Then convenience or judgment sampling is used to select

the required number of subjects from each stratum.

 This differs from stratified sampling, where the strata are

filled by random sampling.
 5. Snowball sampling
• A technique for selecting a research sample where
existing study subjects recruit future subjects from
among their friends.
• Thus the sample group appears to grow like a rolling
snowball.
• This sampling technique is often used in hidden
populations which are difficult for researchers to access;
example populations would be drug users or commercial
sex workers.
• Because sample members are not selected from a
sampling frame, snowball samples are subject to
numerous biases. For example, people who have many
friends are more likely to be recruited into the sample. 25
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 Sample size Determination

• How Big is Big Enough?

• Generally the larger the better, but that takes

more time and money.

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How many people to study?

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 If too many….
• Waste of resources!

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 If too few….
• May fail to detect an important effect

• Estimates of effect may be too imprecise

(wide CI’s)

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 Sample size …
• Which variables should be included in sample size
calculation?
 It should relate to the study’s primary outcome variable
 If the study have secondary outcome variables which
are considered important, the sample size should also
be sufficient for the analysis of these variables.
• Answer depends on:
– How different or dispersed the population is.
– Desired level of confidence.
– Desired degree of accuracy.
– Desired margin of error

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How to do we calculate a sample size

Formulae and software commands

in notes
or
ask statistician
– Rules of thumb approach
– Confidence interval approach
– Hypothesis testing approach

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 1. Rules of thumb approach
Different Views:
1. The larger the population size, the smaller the percentage of
the population required to get a representative sample
2. For smaller samples (N ‹ 100), there is little point in
sampling. Survey the entire population.
3. If the population size is around 500 50% should be sampled.
4. If the population size is around 1500, 20% should be
sampled.
5. Statistician – máxima list – at least 500
6. To make generalizations about entire population, need a
total sample size of 200-400
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 Some Considerations

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 Summary
® Large-scale descriptive studies almost always
use probability-sampling techniques.
® Intervention studies sometimes use
probability sampling but also frequently use
non-probability sampling.
® Qualitative studies almost always use non
probability samples.

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