Aircraft Instruments

• Pitot-Static System
• The aircraft pitot-static system includes instruments that operate on the principle of the barometer. The
system consists of a pitot tube, static air vents, and three indicators, which connect with pipelines that
carry air. The three indicators are Airspeed, Altimeter, and the Vertical Speed.
• The airspeed indicator shows the speed of the aircraft through the air, and the altimeter shows the
altitude. The Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) indicates how fast the aircraft is climbing or descending. All
of these indicators operate on air that comes in from outside the aircraft during flight .
• The pitot tube mounts on the outside of the aircraft at a point where the air is least likely to be
turbulent. The tube points in a forward direction parallel to the aircraft’s line of flight. One general type
of airspeed tube mounts on a streamlined mast extending below the nose of the fuselage. Another type
mounts on a boom extending forward from the leading edge of the wing. Although there is a slight
difference in their construction, the tubes operate identically.
• The Pitot System measures impact pressure, which is the pressure of the outside air against the aircraft
flying through it. The tube that goes from the pitot tube to the airspeed indicator applies the outside air
pressure to the airspeed indicator. The airspeed indicator calibration allows various air pressures to
cause different readings on the dial. The purpose of the airspeed indicator is to interpret pitot air
pressure in terms of airspeed in knots.
• Generally, static air vents  are small, calibrated holes in an assembly mounted flush with the aircraft
fuselage. Their position is in a place with the least amount of local airflow moving across the vents
when the aircraft is flying.
• Static means stationary or not changing. The static part of the pitot-static system also introduces
outside air. However, the outside air is at its normal outside atmospheric pressure as though the aircraft
were standing still in the air. The static line applies this outside air to the airspeed indicators, the
altimeter, and the vertical speed indicator.
 • Airspeed Indicators
• Readings from an airspeed indicator are used to estimate
ground speed and to determine throttle settings for the
most efficient flying speed. These readings also provide a
basis for calculating the best climbing and gliding angles.
They warn the pilot if diving speed approaches the safety
limits of the aircraft’s structure. Since airspeed increases
in a dive and decreases in a climb, the indicator is an
excellent check for maintaining level flight. Figure, view
A, shows a cutaway view of a typical airspeed indicator.
• An airspeed indicator has a cylindrical, airtight case that
connects to the static line from the pitot-static tube.
Inside the case is a small aneroid diaphragm of phosphor
bronze or beryllium copper. The diaphragm is very
sensitive to changes in pressure, and it connects to the
impact pressure (pitot) line. This construction allows air
from the pitot tube to enter the diaphragm. The side of
the diaphragm fastens to the case and is rigid. The
needle or pointer connects through a series of levers and
gears to the free side of the diaphragm.
• The airspeed indicator is a differential pressure instrument. It measures the difference between the
pressures in the impact pressure line and in the static pressure line. The two pressures are equal when
the aircraft is stationary on the ground. Movement through the air causes pressure in the impact line to
become greater than that in the static line. This pressure increase causes the diaphragm to expand. The
expansion or contraction of the diaphragm goes through a series of levers and gears to the face of the
instrument to regulate needle position. The needle shows the pressure differential in MPH or knots. All
speeds and distances are in nautical miles.
• Maximum Allowable Airspeed Indicator
• Figure  view B, shows the face of a maximum allowable airspeed indicator. The dial face measurements
are in knots from 50 to 450 with an expanded scale below 200 knots. The dial has an indicating pointer
and a maximum safe airspeed pointer. The maximum safe airspeed pointer moves as the maximum safe
airspeed changes because of static pressure changes at different altitudes.
• No matter where the pitot-static tube is located, it is impossible to keep it free from all air disturbances
set up by the aircraft structure. You must make allowances for this installation error when reading the
indicator. Temperature is another cause of error. Also, imperfect scaling of the indicator dial with
respect to the airspeed differential pressure relationship will cause an error in reading. You can make
simple adjustments to the instrument mechanism to correct the tendency to read fast or slow.
 • Mach Speed Indicators
• In some cases, the term Mach speed is used
to express aircraft speed. The Mach speed is
the ratio of the speed of a moving body to the
speed of sound in the surrounding medium.
For example, if an aircraft is flying at a speed
equal to one-half the local speed of sound, it
is flying at Mach 0.5. If it moves at twice the
local speed of sound, its speed is Mach 2.
• Figure  shows the front view of a typical
airspeed and Mach speed indicator. The
instrument consists of altitude and airspeed
mechanisms incorporated in a single
housing. This instrument gives the pilot a
simplified presentation of both indicated
airspeed and Mach speed. Both indications
are read from the same pointer.
• The pointer shows airspeed at low speeds, and
both indicated airspeed and Mach speed at high
speeds. Pitot pressure on a diaphragm moves the
pointer, and an aneroid diaphragm controls the
Mach speed dial. The aneroid diaphragm reacts to
static pressure changes because of altitude
changes. Figure  is a mechanical schematic of an
airspeed and Mach speed indicator.
• The range of the instrument is 80 to 650 knots
indicated airspeed and from 0.5 to 2.0 Mach speed.
Its calibrated operating limit is 50,000 feet of
altitude. A stationary airspeed dial masks the upper
range of the movable Mach dial at low altitudes.
The stationary airspeed dial is graduated in knots.
The instrument incorporates a landing speed index
and a Mach speed setting index. You can adjust
both indexes by a knob on the lower left-hand
corner of the instrument. You can adjust the
landing speed index over a range of 80 to 150
knots. The index operates with the knob in its
normal position. You may adjust the Mach speed
index over the entire Mach range. The index adjusts
by depressing the knob and turning it.
 Counter Pointer Pressure Altimeter
• The purpose of the counter pointer pressure altimeter (Figure 6-
8) is to show aircraft height. By studying the dial of the indicator,
you can easily understand the procedure for determining the
height of the aircraft. A description of the mechanical operation
of this altimeter follows.
• Atmospheric changes cause movement of the two aneroid
diaphragm assemblies. These assemblies move two similar
rocking shaft assemblies mutually engaged with the main pinion
assembly. This movement goes to the handstaff assembly, which
operates the hand assembly and drives the counter mechanism
through a disk. Because of the special design of the hand
assembly, the counter indication is never obscured. An internal
vibrator minimizes friction during the instrument’s operation.
• You make barometric corrections by turning the externally
located knob. The knob engages the barometric dial and the
main plate assembly that supports the entire mechanism. You
make adjustments so the reading on the barometric dial
corresponds to the area barometric conditions in which the
aircraft is flying.
 Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)
• A VSI shows the rate at which an aircraft is
climbing or descending. It is very important for
night flying, flying through fog or clouds, or flying
when the horizon is obscured. Another use is to
determine the maximum rate of climb during
performance tests or in actual service.
• The rate of altitude change, as shown on the
indicator dial, is positive in a climb and negative
in a dive or glide. The dial pointer (Figure 6-10)
moves in either direction from the zero point.
This action depends on whether the aircraft is
going up or down. In level flight the pointer
remains at zero.
• The vertical speed indicator is contained in a • Changing pressures will result in expansion or
sealed case, and it connects to the static pressure contraction of the diaphragm, which in turn will move
line through a calibrated leak. the indicating needle through the use of internal gears
and levers. The instrument automatically compensates
for changes in temperature. Although the vertical
speed indicator operates from the static pressure
source, it is a differential pressure instrument. The
difference in pressure between the instantaneous
static pressure in the diaphragm and the static
pressure trapped within the case creates the
differential pressure.
• When the pressures equalize in level flight, the needle
reads zero. As static pressure in the diaphragm
changes during a climb or descent, the needle
immediately shows a change of vertical speed.
However, until the differential pressure stabilizes at a
definite ratio, indications are not reliable. Because of
the restriction in airflow through the calibrated leak,
the differential pressure requires a 6 to 9 second lag
for the pressures to stabilize. The VSI has a zero
adjustment on the front of the case. You use this
adjustment with the aircraft on the ground to return
the pointer to zero. While adjusting the instrument,
tap it lightly to remove friction effects.
 Angle-Of-Attack Transmitter
• Forces vary with the angle of attack. The angle of attack is the
angle between the relative wind and the chord of the wing. The
chord of the wing is a straight line running from the leading
edge to the trailing edge. Increasing the angle of attack
increases the pressure felt under the wing and vice versa.
• The angle-of-attack transmitter  detects changes in the
aircraft’s local angle of attack. It sends these changes, in the
form of mechanical motion, to potentiometers within the
transmitter. These potentiometers convert the mechanical
motion to proportional electrical voltages. These voltages go to
associated angle-of-attack indicating and interface equipment.
• The transmitter has a detector probe that senses changes in
airflow. Changes in airflow cause the probe paddle to rotate.
This rotation, in turn, drives the wiper arms of the three
internally mounted potentiometers.
• The angle-of-attack system shows the pilot aircraft pitch
attitude with respect to the surrounding air mass.
 Angle-Of-Attack (AOA) Indicating System
• The Angle-of-Attack (AOA) indicating system detects
aircraft angle of attack from a point on the side of the
fuselage. It furnishes reference information for the
control and actuation of other units and aircraft systems.
It provides signals to operate an AOA indicator (Figure
below) on the pilot’s instrument panel. This indicator
displays a continuous visual indication of the local angle
of attack. A typical AOA system provides electrical signals
for operating the rudder pedal shaker. The shaker warns
the pilot of an impending stall when the aircraft is
approaching the critical stall angle of attack. Electrical
switches in the AOA indicator operating at various preset
angles of attack energize colored lights in the approach
light system and an approach index light in the cockpit.
These lights furnish the landing signal officer and the
pilot with an accurate indication of approach angle of
attack during landing. An angle-of-sideslip system,
consisting of an airstream direction detector, and angle-
of-sideslip compensator, is installed on some aircraft. The
outputs from these are used for controlled rocket firing.
• The AOA indicating system consists of an airstream direction detector transmitter (Figure below) and
an indicator. The airstream direction detector measures local airflow direction relative to the true angle
of attack. It does this by determining the angular difference between local airflow and the fuselage
reference plane. The sensing element works with a servo-driven balanced bridge circuit, which converts
probe positions into electrical signals.
• The AOA indicating system operation is based on detection of
differential pressure at a point where the airstream is flowing
in a direction that is not parallel to the true angle of attack of
the aircraft. This differential pressure is caused by changes in
airflow around the probe. The probe extends through the skin
of the aircraft into the airstream.
• The exposed end of the probe contains two parallel slots
(ports). These slots detect the differential airflow pressure
(Figure below). Air from the slots passes through two separate
air passages to separate compartments in a paddle chamber.
Any differential pressure, caused by misalignment of the
probe to the direction of airflow, causes the paddles to rotate.
The moving paddles rotate the probe, through mechanical
linkage, until the pressure differential is zero. Alignment
occurs when the slots are symmetrical with the airstream
direction.
• Two potentiometer wipers, rotating with the probe, provide
signals for remote indications. Probe position, or rotation,
converts into an electrical signal by the potentiometer that is
the transmitter component of a self-balancing bridge circuit.
When the angle of attack of the aircraft changes, the position
of the transmitter potentiometer alters. The alteration causes
an error voltage to exist between the transmitter
potentiometer and the receiver potentiometer in the indicator.
• Current flows through a sensitive polarized relay to rotate
a servomotor located in the indicator. The servomotor
drives a receiver potentiometer in the direction required
to reduce the error voltage. This action restores the circuit
to a null or electrically balanced condition. The polarity of
the error voltage determines the resultant direction of
rotation of the servomotor. The indicating pointer is
attached to, and moves with, the receiver potentiometer
wiper arm to show on the dial the relative angle of attack.
• Figure  shows the relationship of the AOA indexer lights
indication and stall warning. The AOA indexer lights
mounted on the pilot’s Heads Up Display (HUD) Combiner
Assembly has two arrows and a circle illuminated by
colored lamps to provide the pilot with approach
information. Two Angle of Attack Transmitters (AOATs)
provide angle of attack information to the flight control
computers, which in turn control the AOA indexer display.
The upper arrow is for high angle of attack (green). The
lower arrow is for low angle of attack (red). The circle is
for optimum angle of attack (amber). An arrow and a
circle together show an intermediate or optimum position
for landing approach.
• The indexer lights function only when the landing gear is
down. A flasher unit causes the indexer lights to pulsate
when the arresting hook is up with the HOOK BYPASS
switch in the CARRIER position.
 Stall Warning System
• Many aircraft have stall warning indicators to warn the
pilot of an impending aerodynamic stall. In the past, stall
warning indicators were of a pneumatic control type. These
devices activated either warning horns or flashing lights.
Later, research found that a stall relates directly to the
angle of attack, regardless of airspeed, power setting, or
aircraft loading.
• The stall warning devices of most aircraft now in the fleet
operate at a specified angle of attack. The devices operate
through cams in the AOA indicator. The camdriven switch
activates a vibrator motor connected to either a rudder
pedal or the control stick.
• Figure 6-25 shows a simplified schematic of the rudder
shaker system. When the aircraft reaches stall angle of
attack, the AOA indicator cam-actuated switch completes
the rudder shaker motor circuit to ground. When the angle
of attack returns below stall conditions, the cam deactuates
the switch. The switch action removes the ground from the
rudder shaker motor.
 Tachometer Systems
• The tachometer indicator is an instrument that
shows the speed of a gas turbine engine (jet)
main rotor assembly. Figure  shows tachometer
indicators for various types of engines. The dials
of tachometer indicators used with jet engines
are shown in percentage of Revolutions per
Minute (RPM), based on takeoff RPM.
• Several types and sizes of generators and
indicators are used in the tachometer systems of
naval aircraft. As a rule, they all operate on the
same basic principle. This section introduces you
to information on tachometer systems. A typical
generator and a typical indicator are described
because it is not practical to describe all the
generators and indicators. For detailed
information on a particular system, you should
refer to the manufacturer’s manuals.
• Essentially, the tachometer system consists of an ac generator coupled to the aircraft engine and an indicator
consisting of a magnetic-drag element on the instrument panel. The generator transmits electric power to a
synchronous motor, a part of the indicator. The frequency of this power is proportional to the engine speed. An
accurate indication of engine speed is obtained by applying the magnetic-drag principle to the indicating
element. The problem of changes in generator output voltage is cut out by the generator and synchronous-
motor combination. These units make a frequency-sensitive system for sending an indication of engine speed
to the indicator with absolute accuracy.
• For many installations, it is desirable to send a single engine-speed indication to two different stations in the
aircraft. The frequency-sensitive system is ideal for this application because there is no change in indication
when a second indicator connects in parallel with the first. Synchronous motor operation in each indicator
depends only on the availability of enough power in the generator to operate both indicator motors.
• Tachometer Generator
• Tachometer generator units are small and compact (about 4 inches by 6 inches). The generator is constructed
with an end shield designed so the generator can attach to a flat plate on the engine frame or reduction
gearbox, with four bolts.
• Figure shows a cutaway view of a tachometer generator. You should refer to it while you read this section. The
generator consists essentially of a permanent magnet rotor (callout 1) and a stator (callout 8) that develop
three-phase power as the rotor turns.
• The armature of the generator
consists of a magnetized rotor. The
rotor is cast directly onto the
generator shaft. The generator may
be of either two- or four-pole
construction. The two- and four-pole
rotors are identical in appearance
and construction. They differ in that
the two-pole rotor is magnetized
north and south diametrically across
the rotor, while the four-pole rotor is
magnetized alternately north and
south at each of the four pole faces.
• The key (callout 2) that drives the
rotor is a long, slender shaft. It has
enough flexibility to prevent failure
under the torsional oscillations
originating in the aircraft drive shaft.
It will also accommodate small
misalignments between the
generator and its mounting surfaces.
This key goes into the hollow rotor
shaft. A pin (callout 3) at the end
opposite.
• The drive shaft secures the key in place.
An oil-seal ring (callout 4) is located
inside the hollow shaft and over this key.
This seal prevents oil from leaking into
the generator through the hollow shaft.
The shaft runs in two ball bearings
(callout 5) set in stainless steel inserts.
The inserts are cast directly into the
generator end shields (callout 6). An
adjusting spring (callout 7) at the
receptacle end of the shaft maintains the
proper amount of end play.
• The stator consists of a steel ring with a
laminated core of ferromagnetic material.
A three-phase winding goes around this
core and is insulated from it. The winding
is adapted for two- or four-pole
construction, depending on the generator
in which it is used. The two end shields
are made of die-cast aluminum alloy.
They serve to support the generator
stator and rotor by means of a receptacle
(callout 9). The receptacle attaches to the
junction box (callout 10) of the generator.
 Thermocouple System
• Thermocouple temperature indicators show the air temperatures in the heater
duct of anti-icing systems and in the exhaust systems of jet engines.
• A thermocouple is a junction or connection of two unlike metals; such a circuit has
two junctions. When one of the junctions becomes hotter than the other, an
electromotive force is produced in the circuit. By including a galvanometer in the
circuit, this electromotive force can be measured. The hotter the high temperature
junction (hot junction) becomes, the greater the electromotive force. By calibrating
the galvanometer’s dial, in degrees of temperature, the galvanometer becomes a
thermometer. The galvanometer contains the cold junction.
• The thermocouple thermometer systems used in naval aircraft consist of a
galvanometers indicator, a thermocouple or thermocouples, and thermocouple
leads. Some thermocouples consist of a strip of copper and a strip of constantan
pressed tightly together. Constantan is an alloy of copper and nickel. Other
thermocouples consist of a strip of iron and a strip of constantan. Others may
consist of a strip of Chromel and a strip of Alumel.
• The hot junction of the thermocouple varies in shape, depending on its application.
Two common types, gasket and rivet, are shown in Figure 6-39. In the gasket
thermocouple, the rings of two dissimilar metals are pressed together, forming a
spark plug gasket. Each lead that connects back to the galvanometers must be of
the same metal as the thermocouple part to which it connects. For example, a
copper wire connects to the copper ring, and a constantan wire connects to the
constantan ring. Thermocouple leads are critical in makeup and length because the
galvanometers are calibrated for a specific set of leads in the circuits.