Theory

Construction
Prepared by; John Patrick De Jesus
Theory Testing
 Theory Testing
Abstraction
• A theory presents a systematic way of understanding events, behaviors,
and/or situations.
• A theory is a set of interrelated concepts, definitions, and Propositions
that explains or predicts events or situations by specifying relations
among variables.
• Theories vary in the extent to which they have been conceptually
developed and empirically tested; however, "testability' is an important
feature of a theory.
• Theory testing is the process of testing whether a certain theory is a
plausible explanation of a phenomenon. The main focus of theory
testing is to discover whether there is evidence that supports (or does
not support) a particular theory.
 There are four ways to test a theory:

(1) logical consistency,

(2) explanatory power,
(3) falsifiability, and
(4) parsimony.
Logical Consistency
• Are the theoretical constructs, propositions, boundary
conditions, and assumptions logically consistent with each
other? If some of these building blocks of a theory are
inconsistent with each other (e.g., a theory assumes
rationality, but some constructs represent nonrational
concepts), then the theory is a poor theory.
Explanatory Power
• How much does a given theory explain (or predict) reality?
Good theories obviously explain the target phenomenon
better than rival theories do, as often measured by variance
explained (R-squared) value in regression equations.
Falsifiability - Is a theory potentially disprovable?
Falsifiability ensures that the theory is potentially
disprovable, if empirical data do not match with
theoretical propositions, which allows for empirical
testing by researchers. Falsifiability requires the
presence of rival explanations.
Parsimony - How simple is the explanation? The
simplest theory (i.e., one that uses the smallest
number of variables or makes the fewest assumptions)
is the best.
CRIMINOLOGIC
AL RESEARCH

Prepared by; John Patrick De Jesus

 UNDERSTANDING THE BASICS IN
CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH
ABSTRACTION
• Research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and
control the observed phenomenon. Research involves inductive
and deductive methods (Babbie, 1998).
• Inductive methods analyze the observed phenomenon and identify
the general principles, structures, or processes. underlying the
phenomenon observed; deductive methods verify the
hypothesized principles through observations. The purposes are
different: one is to develop explanations, and the other is to test
the validity of the explanations.
 UNDERSTANDING THE BASICS IN
CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH
• The early part of the research process involves
the following main activities: conceptualizing the
study, identifying the theory/concepts as basis of
the study, identifying the variables, formulating
the research problem formulating the research
and null hypotheses, defining the framework,
reviewing the related literature, etc.
 UNDERSTANDING THE BASICS IN
CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH
• The early part of the research process involves
the following main activities: conceptualizing the
study, identifying the theory/concepts as basis of
the study, identifying the variables, formulating
the research problem formulating the research
and null hypotheses, defining the framework,
reviewing the related literature, etc.
As cited in the book of Raagas (2010), Leedy
and Ormrod defined research as the
systematic process of collecting and
analyzing information (data) in order to
increase our understanding of the
phenomenon about which we are concerned
or interested.
 Research typically undergoes the following
basic activities:
1. Research originates with a question or problem. The problem and
its statement are important because they are the point of origin of
formal research.
2. Research requires a clear articulation of a goal. A clear,
unambiguous statement of the problem is critical. It must set forth
clearly and in a grammatically complete sentence (or question)
exactly, what is the ultimate goal of the research.
3. Research follows a specific plan of procedure. Research is not a
blind excursion into the unknown, with the hope that the data
needed to answer the question at hand will somehow casually turn
up. Research must be explicitly planned and logically designed to be
able to acquire data relevant to the research problem.
 Research typically undergoes the following
basic activities:
4. Research Usually divides the principal problem into a more
manageable subproblems. From a design standpoint, it is often helpful
to break a main research problem into several subproblems that,
when answered, will resolve the main problem.
5. Research is guided by the specific research problem, question, or
hypothesis. In research, hypotheses are either supported or not
supported by the data.
6. Research accepts certain critical assumptions. In research,
assumptions are equivalent to axioms in geometry. The assumptions
must be valid or else the research is meaningless.
7. Research requires the collection and interpretation
of data in an attempt to answer the problem that
initiated the research. Collect whatever data seem
appropriate and organize them in meaningful ways so
that they can be interpreted.
8. Research is, by its nature, cyclical or more exactly
helical. The research process follows a cycle and begins
simply. In a truer sense, the research cycle might be
more accurately conceived as a helix or spiral of
research.
 What is Methodology?
• Underlying and unifying any research projects are its
methodologies.
• It is not enough to follow research procedures without an
intimate understanding that research methodology directs the
whole endeavor.
• The methodology controls the study, dictates how the data are
acquired, arranges them in logical relations, sets up an
approach for refining and synthesizing the raw data, contrives
an approach so that the meanings that lie below the surface of
those data are manifested, and finally, Yields a conclusion or
series of conclusions that leads to an expansion of knowledge.
 In obtaining information on individual and/or aggregate
Phenomena research methods are utilized. The procedures of
research methods are used to:

(1) create a general explanation or theory to explain a

phenomenon.
(2) test the applicability of an existing theory to a subgroup of
population; and
(3) test the effectiveness of an existing social policy program. The
first two purposes of utilizing research methods are considered
to be critical in the discussion of knowledge in criminology and
criminal justice. The primary interest of criminologists when it
comes to phenomena includes juvenile delinquency, adult
criminality, and victimization.
 Criminological Research Method
In criminological research
• The methods used are considered to be the same to those in the behavioral
and social sciences in general.
• The belief in objective reality, that is a world that different people perceive in
similar fashion, is assumed with the use of the procedures in criminological
research.
• It is called positivism, when the perspective involves the belief that individual
and social processes can be studied dispassionately or scientifically.
Information that is gathered and examined in the conduct of research is
referred to as data, which may be either qualitative or quantitative in form.
• Observations of the phenomena under study may be done to both forms of
information. Survey research or review of archival data can be compiled for
quantitative information.
 Fundamentals of Research
ABSTRACTION
• Research as a systematic inquiry that describes, explains, predicts,
and control an observed phenomenon which involves inductive and
deductive method.
• Inductive methods analyze the observed phenomenon and identify
the general principles, structures, or processes underlying the
phenomenon observed.
• Deductive methods verify the hypothesized principles through
observations.
• The purposes are different: one is to develop explanations, and the
other is to test the validity of the explanations.
 What Are the Purposes of Research?
The importance of identifying the purpose in a research process is classified into four
types:
1. Basic Research This type of research is done purposely to understand and explain. It
takes in a form of theory that explains the phenomenon under investigation to give its
contribution to knowledge. This explores what, why, and how questions, which is
descriptive in nature.
2. Applied Research This type of research purposely helps people understand the nature
of human problems, which pursue potential solutions to human and societal problems.
It is more prescriptive in nature, focusing on how questions.
3. Evaluation Research (Summative and Formative) It studies the processes and
outcomes aimed at attempted solution, which is to improve human intervention within
specific conditions. Its purpose is to judge the effectiveness of a program, policy, or
product.
4. Action Research It aims to solve specific problems within a program, organization, or
community. Data collection in this type of research tends to be informal and the people
in the situation are directly involved.
 What Is a Research Process?
• Raagas (2010) described research as a scientific study that
involves the quest for answers to unsolved problems.
• Research emphasizes the development of generalizations,
principles, or theories that will be helpful In predicting
future occurrences. Lastly, research is based on
observable experience or empirical evidence.
• This means that it demands accurate observation and
description, uses valid and reliable data gathering
procedures, and carefully designs procedures.
In addition, Raagas (2010) cited in his book that Gall, Borg, and Gall
(1996) described the following stages of conducting a research study:
1. Identify a significant research problem. In this stage, find out the
research questions that are significant and feasible to study.
2. Prepare a research proposal. A research proposal usually
consists of the sections, including introduction, literature review,
research design, research method, data analysis and protection
of human subject section, and timeline.
3. Conduct a pilot study. The purpose is to develop and try out
data collection methods and other procedures.
4. Conduct a main study.
5. Prepare a report.
• Further, it also explained that overlapping of
these five stages may occur in a different order
which depends on the nature of the study.
• Qualitative studies that involve emergent
research design may gather and analyze some
data before developing the proposal, or a pilot
study can be done before writing a research
proposal or not at all.
 Research Designs
ABSTRACTION
• The research design refers to the overall strategy that the
researcher chooses to integrate to the different
components of the study in a coherent and logical way,
thereby ensuring that it will effectively address the
research problem.
• It constitutes the blueprint for the collection,
measurement, and analysis of data. Note that the
research problem determines the type of design the
researcher should use, not the other way around.
• A research design's function is to ensure that obtained evidence
enables the researcher to effectively address the research
problem logically and unambiguously as possible.
• In social sciences research, obtaining information relevant to the
research problem generally entails specifying the type of evidence
needed to test a theory, to evaluate a Program, or to accurately
describe and assess meaning related to an Observable
phenomenon.
• Given all these, a common mistake made by researchers is by
beginning the investigations far too early before critically thinking
about what information is needed to address the research
problem. The overall research problem will not be adequately
addressed, and conclusions drawn will run to be unconvincing.
 Describing research designs can vary considerably but
any well- developed design will achieve the following:
1. Identify the research problem clearly and justify its selection,
particularly in relation to any valid alternative designs that could have
been used.
2. Review and synthesize previously published literature associated with
the research problem.
3. Clearly and explicitly specify hypotheses (i.e., research questions)
central to the problem.
4. Effectively describe the data that will be necessary for an adequate
testing of the hypotheses and explain how such data will be obtained.
5. Describe the methods of analysis to be applied to the data in
determining whether or not the hypotheses are true or false.
•The organization and structure of the
section of the research paper devoted to
describing the research design (usually
part of the introduction) will vary
depending on the type of design the
researcher is using.
 Action Research Design
• The essentials of action research design follow a characteristics cycle whereby
initially an exploratory stance is adopted, where an understanding of a problem is
developed, and plans are made for some form of interventionary strategy.
• Then the intervention is carried out (the "action" in action research) during which
time, pertinent observations are collected in various forms. The new interventional
strategies are carried out, and this cyclic process repeats, continuing until a
sufficient understanding of (or a valid implementation solution for) the problem is
achieved.
• The protocol is iterative or cyclical in nature and is intended to foster deeper
understanding of a given situation, starting with conceptualizing and particularizing
the problem and moving through several interventions and evaluations.
 Case Study Design
• A case study is an in-depth study of a particular research
problem.
• It involves the detailed and comprehensive study of an
individual or group Of people to understand and explain
the underlying factors that cause their behavior.
• The case study research design is also useful for testing
whether a specific theory and model actually apply to
the phenomena in the real world.
 Causal Design
• causality studies are used to measure what impact a specific
change will have on existing norms and assumptions.
• Most social scientists seek causal explanations that reflect
tests of hypotheses. Causal effect happens when variation in
one phenomenon (independent variable) leads to or results
in variation in another phenomenon (dependent variable).
• Determining causality requires the following conditions: (1)
empirical association, (2) appropriate time order, and (3)
non-spuriousness.
 Cohort Design
• A cohort study generally refers to a study conducted over
a period of time involving members of a population that
the subject or representative member comes from and
who are united by some commonality or similarity.
• In a quantitative perspective of a cohort study, it takes
note of statistical occurrence within a specialized
subgroup, united by similar characteristics that are
significant to the research problem under investigation.
 Present Your Research
• In qualitative framework, it generally gathers data using methods
of observations. There are two types of cohorts: open and closed.
• The former involves a population that is defined by just being part of the
study in question and being monitored for the outcome.
• The researcher under this can only calculate rate-based data (e.g.,
incidence rates and variants). The latter involves 8 participants who
enter into the study at one defining point in time and presumes
that no new participants can enter the cohort.
• In short, the number of participants in the study remains constant.
 Cross-sectional Design
• A research design that has no time dimension and relies
on existing differences rather than following intervention.
Groups are selected based on existing differences rather
than random allocation.
• The cross-sectional design can only measure differences
among a variety of people, subjects, or phenomena rather
than a process of Change.
• As such, researchers using this design can only employ a
relatively passive approach in making causal inferences
based on findings.
 Descriptive Design
• Descriptive research designs help provide answers to
the questions of who, what, when, where, and how
associated with a particular research problem.
• It cannot conclusively ascertain answers to why.
• Descriptive research is used to obtain information
concerning the current status of the phenomena and
to describe "what exists" with respect to variables or
conditions in a situation.
 Experimental Design
• Experimental research is used where there is time
priority in a causal relationship, there is consistency
in a causal relationship, and the magnitude of the
correlation is great.
• This research design specifies an experimental
group (independent variable) and a control group.
Both groups are measured on the same dependent
variable.
 Exploratory Design
• Exploratory design is used when there are few or no
earlier studies about a research problem that can be
relied upon to predict an outcome. Gaining insights
and familiarity is the focus in the preliminary stage of
investigation of the research problem.
• Exploratory Design are often used to establish an
understanding of how best to proceed in studying an
issue or what methodology would effectively apply to
gathering information about the issue.
 Historical Design
• This research design is used to purposely collect,
verify, and synthesize evidence from the past to
establish facts that defend or refute a hypothesis.
• Secondary sources and a variety of primary
documentary evidence are used in this research
design.
 Longitudinal Design
• Longitudinal research designs describe patterns of change
and help establish the direction and magnitude of causal
relationships.
• Measurements are taken on each variable over two or
more distinct time periods. This allows the researcher to
measure change in variables over time.
• It is a type of observational study sometimes referred to as
a panel study. A longitudinal study follows the same sample
over time and makes repeated observations.
 Mixed method Design
• This method of research is mainly focused on
drawing the strengths of both quantitative and
qualitative data gathering procedures to be
able to formulate a holistic interpretative
approach in order to generate possible
solutions or new understandings of the
research problem.
 Observational Design
• This is a research design that draws conclusion by
comparing Subjects against a controlled group.
• The two general types of this research design are (1)
direct observational design and (2) unobtrusive
observational design.
• In the former type, the people are aware that they
are under observation, while in the latter, they are
unaware that they are being observed.
Thank you for listening.