AIR POLLUTION CONTROL

ATMOSPHERIC CLEANSING PROCESSES

Natural removal mechanisms in atmosphere
Mechanism Details
Dispersion -done by wind current
-lessens the conc at one place

Gravitational settling -removing particulates those >20 micron

Flocculation -settle out particles <0.1micron
Absorption (washout or -particulates and gaseous pollutants are collected in rain or
scavenging) mist, then settle out
-takes place below cloud level

Rainout -involving precipitation

-occurs within clouds when submicron part serve as
condensation nuclei

Adsorption -occurs in friction layer of atm (the closest layer to earth)

-gas, liq and solid are electrostatically attracted to a surface
-natural adsorbent – soil, rocks,leaves, grass
 APPROACHES TO CONTAMINANT
CONTROL

1) Dilution
– Accomplished using tall stacks
• Penetrate the inversion layer and disperse the
contaminant
• Reduce the ground-level conc
– Means of spreading air contaminant
– Diluting air contaminant to harmful level and less
noticeable near the source
– Only short-term control measure
2) Control at source
– Long-term control, desirable and effective
i) Prevent the contaminant from exist
ii)Use alternative power source – in case of
contaminants associated with combustion
processess
iii)Altered high contaminant fuels to desulfured,
LNG or LPG
iv. Proper use of existence equipment – competent
inspective and maintenance
v. Changing the process being used
vi. Install control equipment – either destroy,
counteract, collect or mask pollutants
 CONTROL DEVICES FOR PARTICULATE
CONTAMINANTS FROM STATIONARY SOURCES

• Can be divided into five major SELECTION

groups: 1) Depends on particle

characteristics – size
– Gravitational settling chambers distribution, shape,
density, stickiness,
– Centrifugal collectors electrical properties

– Wet collectors 2) Depends on carrier

gas properties – flow rate
– Electrostatic precipitators and particle conc

– Fabric filters 3) Depends on economic

considerations – cost of
installation, operating and
maintenance
1) Gravitational settling chambers

Settling chamber

Baffled chamber
• Provide enlarged areas to minimize horizontal
velocities and allow time for vertical velocity
to carry particle to the floor
• Usual velocity – 0.5 to 2.5 m/s (best result
-obtained at uniform flow of <0.3m/s
• Calculating minimum diameter of a particle at
100% efficiency in a chamber of length L,
• Simple in design and operation
• Remove particle >50 micron Advantages

• Employ gravity to separate particles

• Require a large space for
installation Disadvantages

• Low efficiency for small particles

 2) Centrifugal collectors

• Employ centrifugal force which can be

generated
Advantages
• Much smaller particles can be removed
compared to gravity settling chamber
2.1) Cyclones
 b
W=b
h
Vi =  i

L3

L1

Length of cylinder, L1 = 2D
Length of cone, L2 = 2D
Diameter of exit, De = D/2
L2
Height of entrance, h = D/2
Width of entrance, b = D/4
Diameter of dust exit, Dd = D/4
Length of exit duct, L3 = D/8
Empirical efficiency for standard
dimension cyclone
• Centrifugal force
– generated by spinning of gas
– Magnitude depends on particle mass, gas velocity
within cyclone and cyclone diameter
• Solid particles are thrown to the walls as gas
spirals upward
• Separation efficiency depends on centrifugal
force exerted on particles
• Large-diameter cyclone – remove particles 40 to
50 micron in diameter
• 23 cm or less diameter cyclone – high efficiency
for particles of 15 to 20 micron
• Smaller diameter cyclone
– Increase the centrifugal force
– Reduce distance of particle travelling before
Advantages
collection
– Problems with equalizing gas flow to each
cone
– Abrasion of tube – high velocity Disadvantages
– Plugging of heavily loaded tubes
 Types Advantages Disadvantages
Cyclones •Have no moving parts •Have low collection efficiency for
respirable particulates
  •Can be used as precleaners to •Suffer decreased efficiency if gas
remove coarser particulates and viscosity or gas density increases
reduce load on more efficient dust
collectors
  •Can be designed to remove a specific •Are susceptible to erosion
size range of particles
    •Have drastically reduced efficiency due
to reduction in airflow rate
    •Cannot process sticky dust

Multicyclones •Have no moving parts •Have low collection efficiency for

respirable particulates
  •Are more efficient than single- •Are prone to plugging due to smaller
cyclone separators diameter tubes
  •Have low pressure drop when used •Improper gas distribution may result in
as a precleaner dirty gas bypassing several tubes
    •Cannot process sticky dust
    •For a given gas volume, occupy more
space than single-cyclone separators
    •Normally have higher pressure drop
than single-cyclone separators
 2.2) Dynamic precipitators
• Centrifugal force
– Generated by the action of rotating vanes
– Seven times higher than conventional cyclone
• Serve as both exhaust fan and dust collector
• Widely used in ceramics, food, Advantages
pharmaceutical
• Cannot handle wet, fibrous material
• Requires higher power input
Disadvantages
 3) Wet collectors

• Incorporating particles into liquid droplets by

impingement or interception during
gravitational settling
• Efficiency depends on energy consumed in the
air-to-water contact
Directly proportional
to pressure drop

Applying this theory –

high efficiency is
expected in venturi-type Low- remove High – remove
medium to coarse fine particles
size particles
• Provide efficient, low-cost solutions to
air pollution problems Advantages

• Can handle hot and moist gases

• High or fluctuating pressure drop
• High maintenance cost if collecting
corrosive materials
• Not recommended for use where high Disadvantages

plume rise is important

• Disposal problems of the particulates –
require other treatment
3.1) Spray tower
• Low-cost scrubber
• Remove both gaseous and particulate
contaminants
• Cause little pressure loss
• Able to handle large volumes of gases
• Effective in moving particles in excess of 10
micron
3.2) Wet cyclone scrubber
• High-pressure spray nozzles generate a fine
spray that intercepts the small particles
entrained in the swirling gases
• Efficiency
– 100% - particles of 100 micron
– 90-98% - particles 5 to 50 micron
– Higher compared to spray tower
• Particle removal depends on
– Liquid flow rate
– Liquid droplets and particle size
3.3) Venturi scrubber
• Most efficient in removing submicron
particles of 0.5 to 5 micron (smoke and
fumes) Advantages

• Efficient in removing particulate and

gaseous contaminant
• High power cost – high inlet gas velocity
Disadvantage
• Removal efficiency – depends on particle
size and head loss
4) Fabric filters (baghouse filters)
• Gas stream with particulate contaminant
passes through a woven or felted fabric
• Ways of how small particles are retained
– Direct interception
– Inertial impaction
– Diffusion
– Electrostatic attraction
– Gravitational settling
 • Filter bags used
– Tubular or envelope-shaped
– Capable of retaining particles < 0.5 micron
(+ substantial quantities of < 0.1 micron)
– Ranging from 1.8 to 9 m long
– Upper ends are closed and lower ends are
attached to inlet manifold
– After the pressure drop increase, can be cleaned
intermittently, periodically or continuously

Unit must be shut down –

seldom used Using mechanical shaker,
Portions are cleaned while reverse-air flow, pulse jets
the rest in operation
• Disadvantages
– Possibility of explosion or fire if sparks are
discharged in baghouse where organic dust are
being filtered
– Space limitation for heavy loads
– Possibility of rupture
• if temperature too high for the fabric medium
• because of moisture, acidity or alkalinity content of the
particulate
• The design based on filtering rates/air-to-cloth
ratios
• Filtering rates range from 0.5 to 5 m/min
depends on dust loading, fabric material and
method of cleaning
• Advantages
– High collection efficiency over a broad range of
particle size
– Extreme flexibility in design
• Advantages (continue)
– Able to handle large volumes of gases at relatively
high speed, reasonable operating pressure drop
and power requirement
– Ability to handle a diversity of solid materials
– Application in high-volume operation such as
cement kiln, foundries, steel furnaces and grain-
handling plants
5) Electrostatic precipitators (ESP)
• Can be classified as low-voltage two-stage or
high-voltage single-stage units
• Low-voltage unit
– Operate at 6000 to 12 000 V
– Employed mainly in conjunction with air-
conditioning systems for hospitals and commercial
installation
– Used mainly to collect liquid particles
– Not recommended for control of solid or sticky
material
 – Its precipitators have a separate ionizing zone located
ahead of the collection plates
– Have design capacities approaching 10m3/s with air
velocity of 0.5 m/s
• High-voltage
– Operate at 30 000 to 100 000 V range
– Used at large industrial plant such as coal-fired utility
boilers
– Require 4 basic steps in in the operation
• Electrical charging of the particulates
• Collection of charged particles on a grounded surface
• Neutralization of the charge at the collector
• Removal of the particulate for disposal
• Advantages
– Have wide application
– =>99% removal efficiency for a wide range of
particle sizes
– Can handle large volumes of gas – 25 to 1000 m3/s
– Low pressure drops
– Can operate continuously with little maintenance
– Can be used to collect acid or tar mists
• Disadvantages
– Cannot be used with explosive materials
– Initial installation cost is high
– Require a great deal of space for industrial
operation
– Only operate at peak efficiency within a limited
temperature range
– May use excessive power if buildup of collected
material causes ‘spark over’
– Inefficient if buildup suppresses the corona
discharge from negative electrode
 CONTROL DEVICES FOR GASEOUS
CONTAMINANTS FROM STATIONARY SOURCE

• Gas of concern in air pollution control – SOx,

CO, NOx, organic and inorganic acid gases &
HC
• Major treatment processes
– Adsorption
– Absorption
– Condensation
– Combustion
 1) Adsorption
• Passing a stream of effluent gas through a porous
solid material (adsorbent)
• Adsorption of adsorbate on adsorbent can be
either by physical or chemical
• Physical adsorption
– Condensation of gases and vapors on solid above dew
point
– Depends upon van der Waals force
– The higher the boiling point, the greater the amount
adsorbed
– Directly proportional to the amount of solid
surface available
– Accompanied by capillary condensation within the
pores
– Small amount of heat is liberated
– Process relatively rapid and readily reversible
– Lowering pressure/increasing temperature
adsorbed gas can be desorbed
• Chemical adsorption/chemisorption
– Gas molecule forms a chemical bond with the
adsorbent
– Gas is strongly held to the solid surface by valence
forces
– A slower process since displacement of atoms
must occur in molecules
– Liberates greater amount of heat and require
more energy
– Results in formation of single layer of molecules
on solid surface
– Process is irreversible – chemical nature of
adsorbate have been altered
– Amount of gas adsorbed depends on pressure and
temperature
 1.1) Adsorbents
• Key characteristics of solid adsorbents
– preferential affinity for specific substances
• Alumina, bauxite, silica gel – affinity for polar such as
water
• Activated charcoal – nonpolar organic compounds
• Molecular sieve (tailor-made) – SO2
– Surface-to-volume ratios
• Provided by internal pores
• Can be increased by activating some adsorbent
– Activated carbon – treating with steam
– Activated alumina – reactivated by heating to 175 to 325 oC
 Quiz 1

1) List 2 advantages of applying centrifugal

collectors in air pollution control
2) List 2 disadvantages of dynamic precipitators
3) 3 types of wet collectors used for control of
particulate
 1.2) Adsorption equipment

• Can be designed with fixed, moving or

fluidized beds
• Fixed bed
– Vertical or horizontal cylindrical shell
– Adsorbent used is activated carbon in layers of 1.3
cm thick (thin) or >1.3 cm (deep)
• Gambar fixed bed
• Moving bed
– Adsorbent is contained in a rotating drum
• Fluidized adsorbent
– Contains a shallow, floating bed of adsorbent
 • Highly efficient until a breakpoint –
saturated adsorbents
• 2 types of adsorbers
– Regenerative
• If depends on physical adsorption, can be
accomplishe using superheated steam or
Depends on gas circulating hot air
properties – easily • Cool the bed before reuse
desorbed or not
• Other ways – burning, pressure reduction and
chemical treatment
– Nonregenerative - costly
• Application
– Adsorb organic vapors from dry cleaning,
degreasing, solvent extracting
• Recovery – economically feasible when
concentrations of organic vapors is high
 2) Absorption

• Contaminated effluent gas (absorbate or

solute) is brought into contact with liquid
absorbent (solvent)
• Utilize chemical (reactive) or physical
(nonreactive) change to remove pollutants
• Reactive absorbent - water and limestone
• Nonreactive – water
• Amount of gas absorbed depends on
– properties of gas and solvent
– Pressure of gas above the solution
– Temperature of the system
– Packing used – turbulence, flow rate and type
• Application
– Control of SO2, H2S, Cl2
– Remove of HC
 2.1) Absorbent (solvent)

• Good solubility of solvent if

– Chemically similar to the solute
– Low viscosity
– Have low freezing point
– Low in toxicity
– Relatively nonvolatile
– Nonflammable
– Chemically stable
• Application in SO2 absorption process
– Alkalies (sodium and ammonia)
• Sodium – not volatile and have no fume problem
• Ammonia – by product (ammonium sulfate) is more
desirable
– Alkaline earths (calcium and magnesium)
• Compound being used – MgO, CaO, CaCO3
 2.2) Absorption units

• Designed to provide
– intimate contact between gas and liq
– Optimum diffusion of the gas in solution
• Selection depends on number of scrubbers to
be used
– Single - removes both particulate and gaseous
– Two separate
2.2.1) Spray towers
• Can handle large volumes of gas
• Little pressure drop
• High efficiency of removal – low
conc of gaseous contaminant Advantages
• Applicable for dual removal
• Chance of absorption depends on
droplet size and turbulence
• Inexpensive to install and operate
 Disadvantages

• Have less gas-liquid interfacial area

• Less effective in removing gaseous
contaminant
2.2.2) Plate or tray towers
• Plate or tray towers
– Contain horizontal trays or plates
•Provide large liquid-gas
interfacial areas
•Usually spaced 0.3 to 0.9 m
apart

• Bubble-cap tray
– Contain cap at which gas are diverted downward
and discharged as small bubbles from slots
2.2.3) Packed towers
• Packing is used to increase the contact time
between vapor and liquid
• Materials of packing
– Has large surface-to-volume ratio
– Has large void ratio to minimize the resistance of gas
flow
– Lightweight and unbreakable
• Countercurrent flow – gas from bottom, liquid
from top
• Highly efficient for gaseous removal
• Disadvantage – easily clogged if gas of high
particulate is introduced
2.2.4) Venturi scrubber
• Cocurrent unit – gas/particulate and
absorption solution
– Are brought into contact in or near the venturi
throat
– Moved together into an entrainment separator
– Separated by centrifugal force of the liquid
droplets
 3) Condensation
• 2 basic types of condensation – surface and
contact condensers

•Vapor and cooling medium are

brought into direct contact
•Less expensive and more •Key role is physical
flexible adsorption
•More efficient in removing •Cooling medium – air or
organic compounds water
•Disadvantage – create water •Vapor and cooling
pollution problem medium is separated by a
metal wall
• Gambar surface and contact condenser
• Application depends upon
– Amount and type of coolant used
– Waste liquid disposal problems that will result
– Amount of compound to be recovered
• Used in conjunction with afterburners,
absorbers or adsorption unit
 4) Combustion
• Basic for important air-pollution control process
• Convert the air contaminants to innocuous CO2
and water
• 4 basic elements for efficient combustion to
occur
– Oxygen Determine the end Must be keep at
product obtained ignition tem
– Temperature
– Turbulence •Keep O2 well mixed with
the combustible subs
– time •Provided by baffles or
•For sufficient injection nozzles
burning
•Done by increasing
stack height
 4.1) Direct-flame combustion
• Waste gases are burned directly in a combustor
• Burn by own – if sufficient heat value and O2
content
• Frequently used in petrochemical plants and
refineries
• Flares
– is usually open-ended combustion units
– Safe means of disposing highly combustible waste
gases (not ideal)
• Disadvantages of flares
– Burn at high temp and long periods – cause
formation of oxides of nitrogen
– Produce visible smoke or soot
– Waste large amount of heat energy
• Economical when the waste gas contribute
>50% of the total heating value for
incineration
 4.2) Thermal combustion

• Applied when combustible gaseous pollutant

is too low
• The waste gas is preheated using heat
exchanger by utilizing the heat produced by
thermal incinerator
• Temp of operation depends on nature of the
waste gas
• Advantages
– Well-designed unit can produce odorless steam
plumes
– Clean stream of hot air produced can be used as a
heat source for other operation
 4.3) Catalytic combustion

• Used when combustible materials is low

• Consist of preheating and catalytic section
• Efficiency depends on
– Contaminant concentration
– Temperature of gas stream
– O2 concentration
– Contact time
– Type of catalyst
 4.4) Automotive emission control

• Indirect control
– Abolition of the internal combustion engine
– Use of electric-powered vehicles
– Increased the utilization of mass transit
• Sources of emissions from gasoline-powered
vehicle
– 20% from crankcase
– 15% from fuel tank and carburetor
– 65% from tail pipe