Data Mining:

Concepts and Techniques

— Unit 2 —

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Unit 2 : Data Warehousing and On-line Analytical
Processing

 Data Warehouse: Basic Concepts

 Data Warehouse Modeling: Data Cube and OLAP
 Data Warehouse Design and Usage
 Summary

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 What is a Data Warehouse?
 Defined in many different ways, but not rigorously.
 A decision support database that is maintained separately from
the organization’s operational database
 Support information processing by providing a solid platform of
consolidated, historical data for analysis.
 “A data warehouse is a subject-oriented, integrated, time-variant,
and nonvolatile collection of data in support of management’s
decision-making process.”—W. H. Inmon
 Data warehousing:
 The process of constructing and using data warehouses

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 Data Warehouse—Subject-Oriented

 Organized around major subjects, such as customer,

product, sales
 Focusing on the modeling and analysis of data for
decision makers, not on daily operations or transaction
processing
 Provide a simple and concise view around particular
subject issues by excluding data that are not useful in
the decision support process

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 Data Warehouse—Integrated
 Constructed by integrating multiple, heterogeneous data
sources
 relational databases, flat files, on-line transaction

records
 Data cleaning and data integration techniques are
applied.
 Ensure consistency in naming conventions, encoding

structures, attribute measures, etc. among different

data sources
 E.g., Hotel price: currency, tax, breakfast covered, etc.

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 Data Warehouse—Time Variant

 The time horizon for the data warehouse is significantly

longer than that of operational systems
 Operational database: current value data
 Data warehouse data: provide information from a
historical perspective (e.g., past 5-10 years)
 Every key structure in the data warehouse
 Contains an element of time, explicitly or implicitly
 But the key of operational data may or may not
contain “time element”

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 Data Warehouse—Nonvolatile

 A physically separate store of data transformed from the

operational environment
 Operational update of data does not occur in the data
warehouse environment
 Does not require transaction processing, recovery,
and concurrency control mechanisms
 Requires only two operations in data accessing:
 initial loading of data and access of data

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 OLTP vs. OLAP
OLTP OLAP
users clerk, IT professional knowledge worker
function day to day operations decision support
DB design application-oriented subject-oriented
data current, up-to-date historical,
detailed, flat relational summarized, multidimensional
isolated integrated, consolidated
usage repetitive ad-hoc
access read/write lots of scans
index/hash on prim. key
unit of work short, simple transaction complex query
# records accessed tens millions
#users thousands hundreds
DB size 100MB-GB 100GB-TB
metric transaction throughput query throughput, response
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 Why a Separate Data Warehouse?
 High performance for both systems
 DBMS— tuned for OLTP: access methods, indexing, concurrency
control, recovery
 Warehouse—tuned for OLAP: complex OLAP queries,
multidimensional view, consolidation
 Different functions and different data:
 missing data: Decision support requires historical data which
operational DBs do not typically maintain
 data consolidation: DS requires consolidation (aggregation,
summarization) of data from heterogeneous sources
 data quality: different sources typically use inconsistent data
representations, codes and formats which have to be reconciled
 Note: There are more and more systems which perform OLAP analysis
directly on relational databases

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Data Warehouse: A Multi-Tiered Architecture

Monitor
Metadata & OLAP Server
Other
sources Integrator

Analysis
Operational Extract Query
DBs Clean
Data Serve Reports
Transform
Load Warehouse Data mining
Refresh

Data Marts

Data Sources Data Storage OLAP Engine Front-End Tools

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 Three Data Warehouse Models
 Enterprise warehouse
 collects all of the information about subjects spanning

the entire organization

 Data Mart
 a subset of corporate-wide data that is of value to a

specific groups of users. Its scope is confined to specific,

selected groups, such as marketing data mart
 Independent vs. dependent (directly from warehouse) data mart
 Virtual warehouse
 A set of views over operational databases

 Only some of the possible summary views may be

materialized
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 Extraction, Transformation, and Loading (ETL)
 Data extraction
 get data from multiple, heterogeneous, and external

sources
 Data cleaning
 detect errors in the data and rectify them when possible

 Data transformation
 convert data from legacy or host format to warehouse

format
 Load
 sort, summarize, consolidate, compute views, check

integrity, and build indicies and partitions

 Refresh
 propagate the updates from the data sources to the

warehouse
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 Metadata Repository
 Meta data is the data defining warehouse objects. It stores:
 Description of the structure of the data warehouse
 schema, view, dimensions, hierarchies, derived data defn, data mart
locations and contents
 Operational meta-data
 data lineage (history of migrated data and transformation path),
currency of data (active, archived, or purged), monitoring
information (warehouse usage statistics, error reports, audit trails)
 The algorithms used for summarization
 The mapping from operational environment to the data warehouse
 Data related to system performance
 warehouse schema, view and derived data definitions

 Business data
 business terms and definitions, ownership of data, charging policies
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Chapter 4: Data Warehousing and On-line Analytical
Processing

 Data Warehouse: Basic Concepts

 Data Warehouse Modeling: Data Cube and OLAP
 Data Warehouse Design and Usage
 Summary

14
 From Tables and Spreadsheets to
Data Cubes
 A data warehouse is based on a multidimensional data model
which views data in the form of a data cube
 A data cube, such as sales, allows data to be modeled and viewed in
multiple dimensions
 Dimension tables, such as item (item_name, brand, type), or
time(day, week, month, quarter, year)
 Fact table contains measures (such as dollars_sold) and keys
to each of the related dimension tables
 In data warehousing literature, an n-D base cube is called a base
cuboid. The top most 0-D cuboid, which holds the highest-level of
summarization, is called the apex cuboid. The lattice of cuboids
forms a data cube.
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January 19, 2022 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 19
 Cube: A Lattice of Cuboids
all
0-D (apex) cuboid

time item location supplier

1-D cuboids

time,location item,location location,supplier

2-D cuboids
time,item time,supplier item,supplier

time,location,supplier
3-D cuboids
time,item,location time,item,supplier item,location,supplier

4-D (base) cuboid

time, item, location, supplier

In data warehousing literature, an n-D base cube is called a base cuboid.

The top most 0-D cuboid, which holds the highest-level of summarization, is
called the apex cuboid. The lattice of cuboids forms a data cube. 20
 Terms related to Data Cubes
 A data cube, such as sales, allows data to be modeled and viewed in
multiple dimensions
 Dimension : entities w.r.t which organization wants to keep
records eg..records of store’s sales w.r.t dimensions item, time
branch and location.
 Dimension tables, such as item (item_name, brand, type), or
time(day, week, month, quarter, year)
 Facts are numeric measures by which we want to analyze
relationship between dimensions.
 Fact table contains measures (such as dollars_sold) and keys
to each of the related dimension tables

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 Conceptual Modeling of Data Warehouses
 Modeling data warehouses: dimensions & measures
 Star schema: A fact table in the middle connected to a
set of dimension tables
 Snowflake schema: A refinement of star schema
where some dimensional hierarchy is normalized into a
set of smaller dimension tables, forming a shape
similar to snowflake
 Fact constellations: Multiple fact tables share
dimension tables, viewed as a collection of stars,
therefore called galaxy schema or fact constellation

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 Example of Star Schema
time
time_key item
day item_key
day_of_the_week Sales Fact Table item_name
month brand
quarter time_key type
year supplier_type
item_key
branch_key
branch location
location_key
branch_key location_key
branch_name units_sold street
branch_type city
dollars_sold state_or_province
country
avg_sales
Measures

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 Example of Snowflake Schema
time
time_key item
day item_key supplier
day_of_the_week Sales Fact Table item_name supplier_key
month brand supplier_type
quarter time_key type
year item_key supplier_key

branch_key
location
branch location_key
location_key
branch_key
units_sold street
branch_name
city_key
branch_type
dollars_sold city
city_key
avg_sales city
state_or_province
Measures country

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 Example of Fact Constellation
time
time_key item Shipping Fact Table
day item_key
day_of_the_week Sales Fact Table item_name time_key
month brand
quarter time_key type item_key
year supplier_type shipper_key
item_key
branch_key from_location

branch location_key location to_location

branch_key location_key dollars_cost
branch_name units_sold
street
branch_type dollars_sold city units_shipped
province_or_state
avg_sales country shipper
Measures shipper_key
shipper_name
location_key
shipper_type 25
 A Concept Hierarchy:
Dimension (location)

all all

region Europe ... North_America

country Germany ... Spain Canada ... Mexico

city Frankfurt ... Vancouver ... Toronto

Street Street1 ... Street2

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 Multidimensional Data

 Sales volume as a function of product, month,

and region
Dimensions: Product, Location, Time
Hierarchical summarization paths
t
uc
od

Industry Region Year

Pr

Category Country Quarter

Product City Month Week

Region

Street

Month
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 A Sample Data Cube

Total annual sales

Date of TVs in U.S.A.
1Qtr 2Qtr 3Qtr 4Qtr sum
t
uc

TV
od

PC U.S.A
Pr

VCR

Country
sum
Canada

Mexico

sum

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 Cuboids Corresponding to the Cube

all
0-D (apex) cuboid
product date country
1-D cuboids

product,date product,country date, country

2-D cuboids

3-D (base) cuboid

product, date, country

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 Typical OLAP Operations
 Roll up (drill-up): summarize data
 by climbing up hierarchy or by dimension reduction
 Drill down (roll down): reverse of roll-up
 from higher level summary to lower level summary or
detailed data, or introducing new dimensions
 Slice and dice: project and select
 Pivot (rotate):
 reorient the cube, visualization, 3D to series of 2D planes
 Other operations
 drill across: involving (across) more than one fact table
 drill through: through the bottom level of the cube to its
back-end relational tables (using SQL)
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Fig. 3.10 Typical OLAP Operations 31
 s) Chicago
c i tie 440
( New York 1560
t ion Toronto 395
a
loc Vancouver drill-down
Q1 605 825 14 400 on time

time (quarters)
Q2
(from quarters
to months)
Q3

Q4
roll-up es)
ti
Chicago
on location computer security
(c i
New York
on Toronto
home phone ati
(from cities entertainment c
lo Vancouver
to countries) item (types) January 150
February 100
March 150
s)
tr ie April
n

time (months)
u
n (co USA 2000 May
o Canada
cati June
lo Q1 1000
July
time (quarters)

August
Q2
September
Q3 October
November
Q4
December
computer security computer security
home phone home phone
entertainment entertainment
item (types) item (types)
made by Radmilo Pesic & Branko
Golubovic 32/74
 )
i t ies Chicago 440 s)
(c New York 1560 c itie USA 395
on Toronto (
cati 395
t ion Canada
lo Vancouver a
loc

(quarters)
Q1 605

time
Q1 605 825 14 400
time (quarters)

Q2
Q2
computer
Q3 dice for home
entertainment
(location=“Toronto” or “Vancouver”) item (types)
Q4
and (time=“Q1”or “Q2”) and
computer security (item=“home entertainment” or “computer”)
home phone
entertainment
item (types)
slice
for time=“Q1”
home
Chicago 605
entertainment
location (cities)

item (types)
New York computer 825

Toronto phone 14
pivot
Vancouver 605 825 14 400 security 400

computer security New York Vancouver

home phone Chicago Toronto
entertainment
item (types) location (cities)

made by Radmilo Pesic & Branko

Golubovic 33/74
Fig. 3.10 Typical OLAP
Operations

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Chapter 4: Data Warehousing and On-line Analytical
Processing

 Data Warehouse: Basic Concepts

 Data Warehouse Modeling: Data Cube and OLAP
 Data Warehouse Design and Usage
 Data Warehouse Implementation
 Data Generalization by Attribute-Oriented
Induction
 Summary

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 Design of Data Warehouse: A Business
Analysis Framework
 Four views regarding the design of a data warehouse
 Top-down view
 allows selection of the relevant information necessary for the
data warehouse
 Data source view
 exposes the information being captured, stored, and
managed by operational systems
 Data warehouse view
 consists of fact tables and dimension tables
 Business query view
 sees the perspectives of data in the warehouse from the view
of end-user
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 Data Warehouse Design Process

 Top-down, bottom-up approaches or a combination of both

 Top-down: Starts with overall design and planning (mature)
 Bottom-up: Starts with experiments and prototypes (rapid)

 From software engineering point of view

 Waterfall method OR Spiral method

 Typical data warehouse design process

 Choose a business process to model, e.g., sales, orders, invoices,
inventory etc.
 Choose the grain (atomic level of data) of the business process(ie
data to be represented in the fact table for this process)
 Choose the dimensions that will apply to each fact table record
 Choose the measure that will populate each fact table record
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 Data Warehouse Usage
 Three kinds of data warehouse applications
 Information processing
 supports querying, basic statistical analysis, and reporting
using crosstabs, tables, charts and graphs
 Analytical processing
 multidimensional analysis of data warehouse data
 supports basic OLAP operations, slice-dice, drilling, pivoting
 Data mining
 knowledge discovery from hidden patterns
 supports associations, constructing analytical models,
performing classification and prediction, and presenting the
mining results using visualization tools

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 Difference between OLAP and Data Mining

January 19, 2022 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 39

 OLAP DATA Mining
Which customers spent the most with us Which types of customers are likely to
in the past year? spend the most with us in the coming
year?

How much did the bank lose from loan What are the characteristics of the
defaultes within past 2 years? customers most likely to default on their
loans before the year is over.

What were the highest selling fashion What additional products are most likely
items in our stores? to be sold to customers who buy shirts?

Which store/location made the highest In which are should we open a new
sales in the past year? store next year?

January 19, 2022 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 40

January 19, 2022 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 41
 OLAP Servers

January 19, 2022 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 42

BASIS FOR ROLAP MOLAP
COMPAR-
ISON
Full Form ROLAP stands for MOLAP stands for
Relational Online Multidimensional Online
Analytical Processing. Analytical Processing.

Storage & Data is stored and Data is Stored and

Fetched fetched from the main fetched from the
data warehouse. Proprietary database
MDDBs.

Data Form Data is stored in the Data is Stored in the

form of relational large multidimensional
tables. array made of data
cubes.

Data Large data volumes. Limited summaries data

volumes is kept in MDDBs. 43
BASIS ROLAP MOLAP
FOR
COMPARI
SON
Technology Uses Complex SQL MOLAP engine created a
queries to fetch precalculated and
data from the prefabricated data cubes for
main warehouse. multidimensional data views.
Sparse matrix technology is
used to manage data sparsity.

View ROLAP creates a MOLAP already stores the

multidimensional static multidimensional view
view of data of data in MDDBs.
dynamically.

Access Slow access. Faster access.

January 19, 2022 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 44
 ROLAP Model

January 19, 2022 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 45

 MOLAP Model

January 19, 2022 46

 Hybrid OLAP

 Hybrid OLAP is a mixture of both ROLAP and MOLAP. It offers

fast computation of MOLAP and higher scalability of ROLAP.
HOLAP uses two databases.

 Aggregated or computed data is stored in a multidimensional

OLAP cube

 Detailed information is stored in a relational database.

January 19, 2022 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 47

 Benefits of Hybrid OLAP:
 This kind of OLAP helps to economize the disk space, and it also
remains compact which helps to avoid issues related to access
speed and convenience.
 Hybrid HOLAP's uses cube technology which allows faster
performance for all types of data.
 ROLAP are instantly updated and HOLAP users have access to
this real-time instantly updated data. MOLAP brings cleaning and
conversion of data thereby improving data relevance. This
brings best of both worlds.
 Drawbacks of Hybrid OLAP:
 Greater complexity level: The major drawback in HOLAP
systems is that it supports both ROLAP and MOLAP tools and
applications. Thus, it is very complicated.
 Potential overlaps: There are higher chances of overlapping
especially into their functionalities.
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