CHAPTER 4

Relational Algebra
• Introduction to Relational Algebra
• Set Operations: Union , Join and Difference
• Multi-table Queries: Cartesian Product , Joins , Subqueries
• Extended Operations- Extended Projection , Division
• Practice Questions
WHY RELATIONAL ALGEBRA ??
• In SQL we write WHAT we want to get form the data

• The database system needs to figure out HOW to get the data
we want

• The passage from WHAT to HOW goes through the Relational

Algebra
 SQL = WHAT Write the names of those customer who lives in Seattle
and have purchased a product of price greater than $100.
Product(pid, name, price)
Purchase(pid, cid, store)
Customer(cid, name, city)

SELECT
SELECT DISTINCT
DISTINCT x.name,
x.name, z.name
z.name
FROM
FROM Product
Product x,x, Purchase
Purchase y,y, Customer
Customer zz
WHERE
WHERE x.pid
x.pid == y.pid
y.pid and
and y.cid
y.cid == z.cid
z.cid and
and
x.price
x.price >> 100
100 and
and z.city
z.city == ‘Seattle’
‘Seattle’

It’s clear WHAT we want, unclear HOW to get it

5
Relational Algebra = HOW
Final answer

Product(pid, name, price) δ

T4(name,name)
Purchase(pid, cid, store)
Customer(cid, name, city) Π
x.name,z.name
T3(. . . )
T2( . . . .) σ
price>100 and city=‘Seattle’

T1(pid,name,price,pid,cid,store) cid=cid

Temporary tables
T1, T2, . . . pid=pid
Customer

Product Purchase 6
 Relational Algebra
• It is procedural query language.
• It consists of set of operations that take one or two relations as input
and produce a new relation as their result.
• The fundamental relational algebra are:
• select: 
• project: 
• union: 
• set difference: –
• Cartesian product: x
• rename: 
• Fundamental Operations

1. SELECT
• It is denoted by sigma ()
• The select operation selects tuples that satisfy the given predicate.
• The predicate appears as a subscript to .
• The augment relation is in parenthesis after as the 
• dept_name = “Physics” (instructor)
• salary > 90000(instructor)
• dept_name = “Physics” ^ salary > 90000 (instructor)
2. PROJECT operation
• Suppose we want to list all instructors ID, name and salary but not
dept_name.
• The project operation allows us to produce this relation.
• The project operation is unary operation.
• It eliminates duplicates rows.
• It is denoted by pi ().
• ID,NAME,DEPT_NAME(INSTRUCTOR)
• Composition of relational operations:
• For complicated queries like “Find the name of all instructors in the physics
department”.
• name (dept_name = “Physics” (instructor))

• Relational operations can be composed together into a relational algebra

expression.
3. UNION Operation
Relations r: A B
s: A B
1 α 2 β
2 α
1 β

2 α

r ∪ s: A B
1 α
1 β
2 β
2 α
• Notation: r ∪ s
• Defined as: r ∪ s = {t | t ∈ r or t ∈ s}
• For r ∪ s to be valid.
1. r, s must have the same arity (same number of attributes)
2. The attribute domains must be compatible (example: 2 nd column
of r deals with the same type of values as does the 2 nd column of s)
 DEPOSITOR BORROWER

• Example: To find all customers with either an account or a loan

∏customer_name (depositor) ∪ ∏customer_name (borrower)
4. SET DIFFERENCE operation
Relations r: A B
s: A B
3 β
1 α
2 α
1 β

2 α

r - s: A B
1 α
1 β
Set Difference Operation
• Notation r – s
• Defined as: r – s = {t | t ∈ r and t ∉ s}
• Set differences must be taken between compatible relations.
• r and s must have the same arity
• attribute domains of r and s must be compatible
5. Cartesian ­Product Operation
Relations r : s:

rXs:
• Notation r x s
• Defined as: r x s = {t q | t ∈ r and q ∈ s}
Composition of Operations
• Can build expressions using multiple operations
Example: σA=C(r x s)
• rxs
 6. Rename Operation
• Allows us to name, and therefore to refer to, the results of relational
algebra expressions.
• Allows us to refer to a relation by more than one name.
• Example:
ρ y (E)
returns the expression E under the name y
• Example:
Find the highest salary in the university.
Our Strategy
1) Compute first a temporary relation consisting of those salaries that are not
largest
2) Take the set difference between the relation Пsalary(instructor) and the
temporary relation just created.

Step 1: Пsalary( instructor.salary < d.salary (instructor X ρ d (instructor)))

Step 2: Пsalary(instructor) - Пsalary( instructor.salary < d.salary (instructor X ρ d (instructor)))
Practice Questions
Consider Employee(E_no, E_name, dept, salary, age)

Q) Select all employees having salary above 5000 and age above 65
Q) Find salary of all employees having age less than 25.
branch (branch_name, branch_city, assets)
customer (customer_name, customer_street, customer_city)
account (account_number, branch_name, balance)
loan (loan_number, branch_name, amount)
depositor (customer_name, account_number)
borrower (customer_name, loan_number)

• Find all loans of over $7600

• Find the loan number for each loan of an amount greater than $7600
• Find the names of all customers who have a loan, an account, or both, from the bank
• Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the Perryridge branch.
• Find the largest account balance
 Additional Relational Algebra
Operation:
1) Assignment Operation
• The assignment operation (←) provides a convenient way to express
complex queries.
• Write query as a sequential program consisting of
• a series of assignments
• followed by an expression whose value is displayed as a result of the query.
• Assignment must always be made to a temporary relation variable.
2) JOIN OPERATION
Join is a combination of a Cartesian product followed by a selection process. A Join operation pairs two tuples
from different relations, if and only if a given join condition is satisfied.
Types:
Inner Join: only those tuples that satisfy the matching criteria are included, while the rest are excluded.
(i) Theta Join
(ii) Equi Join
(iii) Natural Join
Outer Join: along with tuples that satisfy the matching criteria, we also include some or all tuples that do not
match the criteria
(iv) Left Outer Join
(v) Right Outer Join
(vi) Full Outer Join
i) Theta Join
Theta Join allows you to merge two tables based on the condition represented by theta. Theta joins
work for all comparison operators.
The general case of JOIN operation is called a Theta join. It is denoted by symbol θ
Syntax:
A ⋈θ B
Theta join can use any conditions in the selection criteria.
Consider the following tables:
Table A Table B
column 1 column 2 column 1 column 2
1 1 1 1
1 2 1 3

A ⋈ A.column 2 > B.column 2 (B)

ii) EQUI JOIN

When a theta join uses only equivalence condition, it becomes an equi
join.
A ⋈ A.column 2 = B.column 2 (B)
 iii) Natural Join Operation
• Natural join does not utilize any of the comparison operators. In this type of
join, the attributes should have the same name and domain. In this type of
join, there should be at least one common attribute between two relations.
• It performs selection forming equality on those attributes which appear in
both relations and eliminates the duplicate attributes.
• Example:
R = (A, B, C, D)
S = (E, B, D)
• Result schema = (A, B, C, D, E)
• r s is defined as:
r.A, r.B, r.C, r.D, s.E (r.B = s.B  r.D = s.D (r x s))
• Relation r : s:

•r s:
DEPT_ID D_NAME LOCATION STUDENT_ID S_NAME DEPT_ID

D1 CSE A-WING A001 AKSHAR D1

D2 MECH B-WING A002 PAYAL D1

D3 EXTC A-WING B001 MAHESH D2

D4 CIVIL B-WING C004 DIPTI D3

STUDENT_ID S_NAME DEPT_ID D_NAME LOCATION

A001 AKSHAR D1 CSE A-WING
A002 PAYAL D1 CSE A-WING
B001 MAHESH D2 MECH B-WING
C004 DIPTI D3 EXTC A-WING
• Outer Joins
Theta Join, Equijoin, and Natural Join are called inner joins. An inner
join includes only those tuples with matching attributes and the rest
are discarded in the resulting relation. Therefore, we need to use outer
joins to include all the tuples from the participating relations in the
resulting relation. There are three kinds of outer joins −
Left outer join
Right outer join
Full outer join
 LEFT OUTER JOIN

DEPT_ID D_NAME LOCATION STUDENT_ID S_NAME DEPT_ID

D1 CSE A-WING A001 AKSHAR D1

D2 MECH B-WING A002 PAYAL D1

D3 EXTC A-WING B001 MAHESH D2

D4 CIVIL B-WING C004 DIPTI D3

STUDENT_ID S_NAME DEPT_ID D_NAME LOCATION

A001 AKSHAR D1 CSE A-WING
A002 PAYAL D1 CSE A-WING
B001 MAHESH D2 MECH B-WING
C004 DIPTI D3 EXTC A-WING
NULL NULL D4 CIVIL B-WING
 RIGHT OUTER JOIN

DEPT_ID D_NAME LOCATION STUDENT_ID S_NAME DEPT_ID

D1 CSE A-WING A001 AKSHAR D1

D2 MECH B-WING A002 PAYAL D1

D3 EXTC A-WING B001 MAHESH D2

C004 DIPTI D5

STUDENT_ID S_NAME DEPT_ID D_NAME LOCATION

A001 AKSHAR D1 CSE A-WING
A002 PAYAL D1 CSE A-WING
B001 MAHESH D2 MECH B-WING
C004 DIPTI D5 NULL NULL
 FULL OUTER JOIN

DEPT_ID D_NAME LOCATION STUDENT_ID S_NAME DEPT_ID

D1 CSE A-WING A001 AKSHAR D1

D2 MECH B-WING A002 PAYAL D1

D3 EXTC A-WING B001 MAHESH D2

D4 CIVIL B-WING C004 DIPTI D5

STUDENT_ID S_NAME DEPT_ID D_NAME LOCATION

A001 AKSHAR D1 CSE A-WING
A002 PAYAL D1 CSE A-WING
B001 MAHESH D2 MECH B-WING
C004 DIPTI D5 NULL NULL
NULL NULL D4 CIVIL B-WING
 3. DIVISION OPERATION:

Relation r: s:

r÷s
 Another Example of Division:
• Relation r: s:

•r÷s
Q) Select the users whose age is less than 25
Q) Select the users whose id is greater than 2 or age is not 31.
Q) Select the person who stays in Boston.
Q) Select the occupation of every person.
 Generalized Projection:
• The generalized projection operation extends the projection operation by
allowing arithmetic functions to be used in the projection list.
Customer_name Limit Credit_balance
KEN 2000 1750
JONES 6000 700
SMITH 2000 400
HAYES 1500 1500

• If we want to find out how much each person can spend,

customer_name,(limit-credit_balance) as credit_available (CUSTOMER)
• Aggregate Functions
a) SUM
b) COUNT
c) DISTINCT
d) MAX
e) MIN

G SUM (SALARY) (INSTRUCTOR)

Q) Consider the following relations for database that keeps track of student enrolment in
courses and books issued for each course.
STUDENT(Ssn, Name, Subject, DOB)
COURSE(Course_id, CName, Dept)
ENROLL(Ssn, Course_id, Semester, Grade)
Book_issued(Course_id, Semester, ISBN)
TEXT(ISBN, Title,Publisher,Author)
1. Write a query to select all courses available in institute.
2. Find all the student details registered for course_id 10.
3. Find various book titles and authors for semester higher than 3.
4. Find all students belong to IT department
5. Find total number of students enrolled in IT Department.
 Solve the following Questions using relational algebra:

RELATIONAL SCHEMA: (a) Retrieve all information about airports in London. The
schema of the output table should be same as that of the
Airport (Airport_ID, Name, city) Airport table.
(b) Retrieve details of all bookings by British and French
Flight( flight_no, flightcompany, passengers. The schema of the output table should be
depAirport, arrairport) same as that of the Booking table.
(c) Retrieve the names of all passengers.
Booking(ticke_no, name, (d) Retrieve the flight number, Departure and Arrival
nationality, flight_no, seatno) airports of all British Airways flights.
(e) Retrieve the name of every passenger together with
Seat(seat_no, flight_no, class) their flight number and the associated flight company.
(f) Find out the ticket numbers and names of all
passengers departing from London.
Solve the following Questions using
relational algebra:
Q) Select book titles.
Q) How many authors are not book editors
Q) Write a relational algebra expression
that returns the names of all authors who
are book editors
Q) Write a relational algebra expression
that returns the names of all authors who
have at least one publication in the
database.
Q) How many tuples are returned by the
following relational algebra expression?
author author id=editor book
 Solve the following Questions using relational algebra:
Q) List the year and title of each book
Q) List all information about students whose major is in CS
RELATIONAL SCHEMA:
Q) List all students with books they can borrow
BOOKS(DocId, Title, Publisher, Year) Q) List all books published by McGraw-Hill before 1990
Q) List the name of those authors who are living in Davis
STUDENTS(StId, StName, Major, Age) Q) List the name of students who are older than 30 and
AUTHORS(AName, Address) who are not studying CS
Q) Rename AName in the relation AUTHORS to Name
borrows(DocId, StId, Date) Q) List the names of all students who have borrowed a book
and who are CS majors.
has-written(DocId, AName) Q) List each book with its keywords.
describes(DocId, Keyword) Q) List the authors of the books the student ’Smith’ has
borrowed.
Q) Which books have both keywords ’database’ and
’programming’?
 Solve the following Questions using relational algebra:
• Retrieve details of all films that were released in 2010. The
output schema should be same as that of the Film table.
SCHEMA: • Retrieve details of all actors that are not in their thirties. The
output schema should be the same as that of actor table.
• Actor (actorId, name, • Retrieve the names of all directors.
nationality, age) • Retrieve the names of all American directors.
• Film (filmId, title, year, • Find out the names of all British actors above the age of 40.
directorId) • Retrieve the name of each actor together with the titles of
the film he/she has performed in.
• Performance (actorId, • Find out the names of all actors that have played the
filmId, character) character of Bruce Wayne, together with the year
corresponding films were released.
• Director (directorId, • Retrieve all actors from the film inception.
name, nationality)
Tuple Relational Calculus
Tuple Relational Calculus

• A nonprocedural query language, where each query is of the

form
{t | P (t ) }
• It is the set of all tuples t such that predicate P is true for t
• t is a tuple variable, t [A ] denotes the value of tuple t on
attribute A
• t  r denotes that tuple t is in relation r
• P is a formula similar to that of the predicate calculus
Predicate Calculus Formula
1. Set of attributes and constants
2. Set of comparison operators: (e.g., , , , , , )
3. Set of connectives: and (), or (v)‚ not ()
4. Implication (): x  y, if x if true, then y is true
5. Set of quantifiers:
 t r (Q (t )) ”there exists” a tuple in t in relation r
such that predicate Q (t ) is true
 t r (Q (t )) Q is true “for all” tuples t in relation r
Example Queries
• Find the ID, name, dept_name, salary for instructors
whose salary is greater than $80,000
{t | t  instructor  t [salary ]  80000}
Notice that a relation on schema (ID, name, dept_name, salary) is
implicitly defined by the query

 As in the previous query, but output only the ID attribute value

{t |  s instructor (t [ID ] = s [ID ]  s [salary ]  80000)}

Notice that a relation on schema (ID) is implicitly defined by
the query
Example Queries
• Find the names of all instructors whose department is
in the Watson building
{t | s  instructor (t [name ] = s [name ]
 u  department (u [dept_name ] = s[dept_name] “
 u [building] = “Watson” ))}

 Find the set of all courses taught in the Fall 2009 semester, or in
the Spring 2010 semester, or both

{t | s  section (t [course_id ] = s [course_id ] 

s [semester] = “Fall”  s [year] = 2009
v u  section (t [course_id ] = u [course_id ] 
u [semester] = “Spring”  u [year] = 2010 )}
Example Queries
 Find the set of all courses taught in the Fall 2009 semester, and in
the Spring 2010 semester

{t | s  section (t [course_id ] = s [course_id ] 

s [semester] = “Fall”  s [year] = 2009
 u  section (t [course_id ] = u [course_id ] 
u [semester] = “Spring”  u [year] = 2010 )}

 Find the set of all courses taught in the Fall 2009 semester, but not in
the Spring 2010 semester

{t | s  section (t [course_id ] = s [course_id ] 

s [semester] = “Fall”  s [year] = 2009
  u  section (t [course_id ] = u [course_id ] 
u [semester] = “Spring”  u [year] = 2010 )}
 Universal Quantification
• Find all students who have taken all courses offered in the Biology department
• {t |  r  student (t [ID] = r [ID]) 
( u  course (u [dept_name]=“Biology” 
 s  takes (t [ID] = s [ID ] 
s [course_id] = u [course_id]))}
Domain Relational Calculus
Domain Relational Calculus
• A nonprocedural query language equivalent in
power to the tuple relational calculus
• Each query is an expression of the form:

{  x , x , …, x  | P (x , x , …, x )}
1 2 n 1 2 n

• x1, x2, …, xn represent domain variables

• P represents a formula similar to that of the predicate
calculus
 Example Queries
• Find the ID, name, dept_name, salary for instructors whose salary is
greater than $80,000
• {< i, n, d, s> | < i, n, d, s>  instructor  s  80000}
• As in the previous query, but output only the ID attribute value
• {< i> | < i, n, d, s>  instructor  s  80000}
• Find the names of all instructors whose department is in the Watson
building
{< n > |  i, d, s (< i, n, d, s >  instructor
  b, a (< d, b, a>  department  b = “Watson” ))}
Example Queries
 Find the set of all courses taught in the Fall 2009 semester, or in
the Spring 2010 semester, or both
{<c> |  a, s, y, b, r, t ( <c, a, s, y, b, r, t >  section 
s = “Fall”  y = 2009 )
v  a, s, y, b, r, t ( <c, a, s, y, b, r, t >  section ] 
s = “Spring”  y = 2010)}
This case can also be written as
{<c> |  a, s, y, b, r, t ( <c, a, s, y, b, r, t >  section 
( (s = “Fall”  y = 2009 ) v (s = “Spring”  y = 2010))}
 Find the set of all courses taught in the Fall 2009 semester, and in
the Spring 2010 semester

{<c> |  a, s, y, b, r, t ( <c, a, s, y, b, r, t >  section 

s = “Fall”  y = 2009 )
  a, s, y, b, r, t ( <c, a, s, y, b, r, t >  section ] 
s = “Spring”  y = 2010)}
 Universal Quantification
• Find all students who have taken all courses offered in the Biology
department
• {< i > |  n, d, tc ( < i, n, d, tc >  student 
( ci, ti, dn, cr ( < ci, ti, dn, cr >  course  dn =“Biology”
  si, se, y, g ( <i, ci, si, se, y, g>  takes ))}
• Note that without the existential quantification on student, the
above query would be unsafe if the Biology department has not
offered any courses.