UNIT-IV

HABITAT
Habitat refers to the place or the location where an organism (or a
biological population) lives, resides or exists. The term habitat came
from the Latin “habitātus”, meaning “having been inhabited”.
In ecology, a habitat is where a species of organism lives or thrives. It
is the natural environment of that species. It is where it will derive its
food, shelter, and mate for reproduction. It is where the species will
attempt to be as adaptive as possible.

Habitats may be an open geographical area or a specific site (e.g. a

rotten log, a hollow tree, or inside a tree bark). They may be terrestrial or
aquatic.

Examples of terrestrial habitats are forest, grassland, steppe, and

desert. Aquatic habitats include freshwater, marine water, and brackish
water
Marine habitat
The marine ecology is diversified and different from other ecology.

 Marine environment can be divided into some distinct zones and

these are called zonations of marine environment.

 These zones are determined by a number of factors such as tidal

range, individual species range or a combination of the two.

 The tides are very important which affects turbidity.

 The number and the abundance of various organisms vary from zone
to zone such as in the continental shelf area the biodiversity of aquatic
organisms is most comparing to other zones .
Zonations of sea
 The marine environment can be divided into two zones:
 Pelagic zone
 The word pelagic is derived from ancient Greek pelagos which means
open sea. The pelagic zone occupies 1330 million cubic miles.

 Benthic zone
 The benthic zone is the ecological region at the lowest level of a body
of water such as an ocean or a lake, including the sediment surface and
some sub- surface layers. Organisms living in this zone are called
benthos.
Pelagic zone
 This is the part of the ocean extending from the low tide mark with a
relatively shallow depth extending to about 200 meters. The neritic zone
has generally well oxygenated water, low water pressure and stable
water temperature. Zooplankton, free floating creatures ranging from
microscopic foraminifera are to small fish and shrimps live in this zone.

 Palegic zone is sub – divided into:

 Based on the range in depth - Epipelagic (sunlit) ,Mesopelagic
(twilit), Bathypelagic (midnight), Abyssopelagic (lower midnight) and
Hadopelagic

 Based upon the depth of light penetration - Photic zone, Disphotic

zone and Aphotic zone
Based on the range in depths
 Epipelagic (sunlit): This zone starts from the surface down to around
200 m. This is the illuminated zone at the surface of the sea where there
is enough light for photosynthesis .Nearly all primary production in the
ocean occurs here.
 Mesopelagic (twilit): This zone starts from 200 meters down to 1000
m. This mesopelagic zone is sometimes referred to as mid water zone.
Although some light penetrates here, it is insufficient for photosynthesis.
 Bathypelagic (midnight): From 1000 meters down to 4000 m. This
depth the ocean is pitch black. Apart from occasional bioluminescent
organisms such as lantern fish, there is no living plant life .
 Abyssopelagic (lower midnight): From 4000 meters down to6000 m.
The water temperature is near freezing and there is no light at all. This
zone is mostly unknown and very few species are known to live here .
 Hadopelagic : This zone extends from 6000 m to the ocean bottom.
These areas are mostly found water trenches and canyons.
Based on the light penetration
 Photic zone: The photic zone is the depth of the water of ocean that
is exposed to sufficient sunlight for photosynthesis to occur. Typical
euphotic depths vary from only a centime ter in highly turbid eutrophic
lakes, to around 200 m in the open sea. It also varies with the seasonal
changes of turbidity. The number of various kinds of phytoplankton is
very higher in this zone.
 Disphotic zone: This is the zone start from 200 m to 700 m. In the
disphotic zone small amount of sunlight penetrate. The rate of
photosynthesis is very low in this layer. Turbidity is an important factor
which determines the turbidity.
 Aphotic zone: This is the zone of ocean where there is no sunlight.
Consequently, bioluminescence is essentially the only light found in this
zone. Most food comes from dead organisms sinking to the bottom of the
ocean from overlaying water. The temperature is very low.
Phytoplanktons in photic zone Swordfish in disphotic zone
Biolumininescent angler fish in aphotic region
Benthic zone
 The benthic region of the ocean begins at the shore line and extends
downward along the surface of the continental shelf out to sea.
 The continental shelf is a gently sloping benthic region that extends
away from the land mass. At the continental shelf edge, usually about
200 meters deep, the gradient greatly increases and is known as the
continental slope.
 The continental slope drops down to the deep sea floor. The deep-sea
floor is called the abyssal plain and is usually about 4,000 meters deep.
The ocean floor is not all flat but has submarine ridges and deep ocean
trenches known as the hadal zone.
 Depending on the water body, the benthic zone may include areas that
are only a few inches below water, such as a stream or shallow pond, or
may be at the bottom of an ocean below a 4,000 meter (13,000 foot)
column of water.
 Benthic habitats are very diverse, depending upon their depth and
location and have distinct biological, physical, and geochemical
characteristics . The superficial layer of the soil lining the given body of
water is an integral part of the benthic zone, as it influences greatly the
biological activity that takes place there.
 Examples of contact soil layers include sand bottoms, rock outcrops,
coral, and bay mud.
Classification of marine biota
 Marine biota can be classified broadly into those organisms living in
either the pelagic environment (plankton and nekton) or the benthic
environment (benthos).
 Some organisms, however, are benthic in one stage of life and pelagic
in another.
 Producers that synthesize organic molecules exist in both
environments.
 Single-celled or multi - celled plankton with photosynthetic pigments
are the producers of the photic zone in the pelagic environment.
 Typical benthic producers are microalgae (e.g., diatoms), macroalgae
(e.g., the kelp Macrocystis pyrifera), or sea grass (e.g., Zostera).
Plankton
 Plankton are the numerous, primarily microscopic inhabitants of the
pelagic environment. They are critical components of food chains in all
marine environments because they provide nutrition for the nekton (e.g.,
crustaceans, fish, and squid) and benthos (e.g., sea squirts and sponges).
They also exert a global effect on the biosphere because the balance of
components of the Earth’s atmosphere depends to a great extent on the
photosynthetic activities of some plankton.
 Plankton range in size from tiny microbes (1 micrometre [0.000039
inch] or less) to jellyfish whose gelatinous bell can reach up to 2 metres
in width and whose tentacles can extend over 15 metres.
 The plankton include a wide variety of organisms such as algae,
bacteria, protozoans, the larvae of some animals, and crustaceans.
 Phytoplankton carry out photosynthesis and are the producers of the
marine community; zooplankton are the heterotrophic consumers.
 Zooplanktons are greater than 0.05 millimetre in size.
Nekton
 Nekton are the active swimmers of the oceans and are often the best-
known organisms of marine waters. Nekton are the top predators in most
marine food chains.
 The vast majority of nekton are vertebrates (e.g., fishes, reptiles, and
mammals), mollusks, and crustaceans. The most numerous group of
nekton are the fishes, with approximately 16,000 species.
 Nekton diversity is greatest in tropical waters, where in particular
there are large numbers of fish species.
 The largest animals on the Earth, the blue whales (Balaenoptera
musculus), which grow to 25 to 30 metres long, are members of the
nekton.
Benthos
 Organisms are abundant in surface sediments of the continental shelf
and in deeper waters, with a great diversity found in or on sediments.
 On many sediments in the photic zone, however, the only
photosynthetic organisms are microscopic benthic diatoms.
 Benthic organisms can be classified according to size. The
macrobenthos are those organisms larger than 1 millimetre.
 Organisms between 0.1 and 1millimetre constitute the meiobenthos .
 The microbenthos are those organisms smaller than 1 millimetre; they
include diatoms, bacteria, and ciliates.
The term “ecosystem” refers to all of the non-living and living
elements of a natural environment, including but not limited to water,
sunlight, rock, sand, vegetation, microorganisms, bugs and wildlife.
Marine ecosystems are aquatic ecosystems whose waters possess a high
salt content.

Out of all of the types of ecosystems on the planet, marine ecosystems

are the most prevalent. They teem with life, providing nearly half of the
Earth's oxygen and a home for a wide array of species.

Scientists generally classify marine ecosystems into six main

categories.
Open Marine Ecosystems
The first thing many people think of upon hearing the term “marine
ecosystem” is the open ocean, which is indeed a major type of marine
ecosystem. This category includes types of sea life that float or swim,
such as algae, plankton, jellyfish and whales. Many creatures living in
the open ocean inhabit the upper layer of the ocean where the sun’s rays
penetrate. This is known as the euphotic zone and extends to a depth of
about 150 meters (500 feet).

Ocean Floor Ecosystems

Marine life not only exists in the open ocean waters, but on its floor as
well. Species that live in this ecosystem include certain types of fish,
crustaceans, clams, oysters, worms, urchins, seaweed and smaller
organisms. In the shallow water, sunlight can penetrate to the bottom.
However, at greater depths, sunlight cannot penetrate, and organisms
inhabiting this deep water rely on the sinking of organic matter above for
survival. Many such organisms are small and generate their own light to
find or attract food sources.
Coral Reef Ecosystems
Coral reefs are a special subtype of seafloor ecosystem. Found only in
warm tropical waters and at relatively shallow depths, coral reefs are
among the most productive ecosystems on the planet. About one-quarter
of marine species depend on coral reefs for food, shelter or both. While
coral reefs are famous for attracting brightly colored exotic fish, a
plethora of other species -- snails, sponges and seahorses, to name a few
-- inhabit coral reefs. The reefs themselves are produced by simple
animals that build external skeletons around themselves.
Estuary Ecosystems
The term “estuary” typically describes the shallow, sheltered area of a
river mouth where freshwater intermingles with saltwater as it enters the
sea, although the term can also refer to other areas with flowing brackish
waters, such as lagoons or glades. The degree of salinity varies with the
tides and the volume of outflow from the river. The organisms inhabiting
estuaries are specially adapted to these distinct conditions; hence, the
diversity of species tends to be lower than in the open ocean. 
However, species which generally inhabit neighboring ecosystems may
occasionally be found in estuaries. Estuaries also serve an important
function as nurseries for many types of fish and shrimp.

Saltwater Wetland Estuary Ecosystems

Found in coastal areas, saltwater wetlands may be considered a special
type of estuary, as they also consist of a transition zone between land and
sea. These wetlands can be divided into two categories: saltwater
swamps and salt marshes. Swamps and marshes differ in that the former
are dominated by trees while the latter are dominated by grasses or
reeds. Fish, shellfish, amphibians, reptiles and birds may live in or
seasonally migrate to wetlands. Additionally, wetlands serve as a
protective barrier to inland ecosystems, as they provide a buffer from
storm surges.
Mangrove Ecosystems
Some tropical and subtropical coastal areas are home to special types of
saltwater swamps known as mangroves. Mangroves may be considered
part of shoreline ecosystems or estuary ecosystems. Mangrove swamps
are characterized by trees that tolerate a saline environment, whose roots
systems extend above the water line to obtain oxygen, presenting a
mazelike web. Mangroves host a wide diversity of life, including
sponges, shrimp, crabs, jellyfish, fish, birds and even crocodiles.
Freshwater Aquatic Ecosystem
They cover only a small portion of earth nearly 0.8 per cent. Freshwater
involves lakes, ponds, rivers and streams, wetlands, swamp, bog and
temporary pools. Freshwater habitats are classified into lotic and lentic
habitats. Water bodies such as lakes, ponds, pools, bogs, and other
reservoirs are standing water and known as lentic habitats. Whereas lotic
habitats represent flowing water bodies such as rivers, streams.

Lotic Ecosystems
They mainly refer to the rapidly flowing waters that move in a
unidirectional way including the rivers and streams. These environments
harbor numerous species of insects such as beetles, mayflies, stoneflies
and several species of fishes including trout, eel, minnow, etc. Apart
from these aquatic species, these ecosystems also include various
mammals such as beavers, river dolphins and otters.
Lentic Ecosystems
They include all standing water habitats. Lakes and ponds are the main
examples of Lentic Ecosystem. The word lentic mainly refers to
stationary or relatively still water. These ecosystems are home to algae,
crabs, shrimps, amphibians such as frogs and salamanders, for both
rooted and floating-leaved plants and reptiles including alligators and
other water snakes are also found here.

Wetlands
Wetlands are marshy areas and are sometimes covered in water which
has a wide diversity of plants and animals. Swamps, marshes, bogs,
black spruce and water lilies are some examples in the plant species
found in the wetlands. The animal life of this ecosystem consists of
dragonflies and damselflies, birds such as Green Heron and fishes such
as Northern Pike.
 Ecological classification of fresh water

Organisms in Fresh water (or any other natural habitat) are not
arranged in taxonomic order (such as is followed in taxonomic text or
systematic museum) some sort of classification on an ecological basis is
useful.

Autotrophs (producers) are green plants and chemosynthetic

microorganism.

Phagotrophs (Macroconsumer) primary, secondary, etc, herbivores,

predators, parasites.

Saprotrophs (microconsumer or decomposers) Subclassified according

to nature of the organic substrate decomposed.
Organism in water may be classified as to their life form or life
habitat, base on their mode of life.
Benthos Organism attached or resting on the bottom or living in the
bottom sediments

Periphyton or Aufwuchs Organisms (both plant and animal) attached

or clinging to stems

Plankton Floating organisms whose movements are more or less

dependent on current. While some of the zooplankton exhibit active
swimming movements that aid in the maintaining vertical position
plankton as a whole is unable to move against appreciable currents.

Nekton Swimming organisms that able to navigate at will(and hence

capable of avoiding plankton, nets, water bottles etc.) Fish amphibians,
large swimming insects and so fourth.

 Neuston Organism resting or swimming on the surface.

Finally, organism may be classified as to region or subhabitat. In the
ponds and lakes three zones are generally evident
Littoral Zone The shallow water region with light penetration to the
bottom typically occupied by rooted plants in natural ponds and lakes but
not necessarily.
Limnetic Zone The open water zone to the depht of effective light
penatration, called the compensation level which is the depth at which
photosynthesis just balances respiration.
Profundal Zone The bottom and deep water area which is beyond the
depth of effective light penetration. This zone is often absent in ponds.
Rapid Zone Shallow water where velocity of current is great enough to
keep the bottom clear of silt and other loose materials, thus providing a
firm substrate.
Pool Zone Deeper water where velocity of current is reduced and silt
and other loose materials o be tend to settle to the bottom, thus provide a
soft bottom.
The Fresh Water Biota The major Divisions of plants and many of the
major animal phyla are represented by one or more genera living in fresh
water communities.
LENTIC COMMUNITIES
The biological characteristics of still water bodies.
NATURE AND COMMUNITIES IN THE LITTORAL ZONE
 Producers
 Consumers
The Limnetic Zone The limnetic zone is the well it, open surface waters
in a lake, away from the shore. The vegetation of the littoral zone
surrounds this expance of open water and its above the profundal zone.
 Terrestrial Habitats
Terrestrial habitat is a habitat that is found predominantly on land.
Terrestrial habitats are spread out across a large range of environments
such as caves, deserts, farms, forests, grasslands,  shorelines, wetlands,
etc.

Semi-natural or man-made habitats such as national parks or biosphere

reserve also constitute terrestrial habitats.

Types of Terrestrial Habitats

There are four major types of terrestrial habitat.
•Forests
•Deserts
•Mountains
•Grasslands
Forests
Forest cover nearly 40 million square kilometres of the earth’s surface
or 31% of the total land surface.
They are essential for the existence of life on earth as it serves as a 
natural habitat for a vast range of plants and animals. Currently, over 300
million species of plants and animals live in forests.

The forest ecosystem is divided into four different subgroups :

Tropical forests have the highest species diversity. This type of forest is

usually located around the equator in South Africa, America, and
Southeast Asia. The characteristic feature of these regions is the
humidity and excessive rainfall. Unsurprisingly, Mawsynram, in India, is
reportedly the wettest place on earth, receiving an average annual
rainfall of over 467 inches.
Temperate forests have four well-defined seasons and it receives more
rain annual than most other environments, except tropical rainforests.
Hence, temperate forests are also called temperate rain forests. Summers
are usually mild, with temperatures hovering around 21° to 22°C.
However, winters are cold with average temperatures plummeting well
below freezing. Temperate forests are characterized by evergreen trees
such as conifers, pine, etc. Terrestrial animals that are native to such
forests include bears, deer, elk, lynxes, marmots, and owls.

Boreal Forests are forests that are similar to the temperate forests but it
has a much harsher temperature. It is also called the Taiga and is the
largest land biome. Winters are long and extremely cold, for
instance, Verkhoyansk, a town in Russia has recorded temperatures well
below -50° C. The coldest ever temperature recorded was – 67° C.
Plantation Forests are forests that are cultivated for the purpose of
commercialization. Usually, only one or two species of trees are
cultivated. They are also genetically altered to provide better resistance
against diseases and commercial viability (more plant material).
Grasslands
Grasslands are areas where the most dominant type of vegetation is
grasses. These types of environments occur naturally throughout the
world (with the exception of Antarctica).
Grasslands are home for a wide diversity of animal species, such as
elephants, giraffes, hyenas, jackrabbits, lions, rhinos, warthogs, and
zebras.

The grasslands are subdivided into, namely:

Tropical Grasslands – It is also known as the Savanna or savannah.
They are characterized by a combination of widely spaced grassy fields
and woodlands where sufficient light reaches the ground. Annually, such
areas receive 30 to 50 inches of rain every year, which is then followed
by a dry season.
Temperate Grasslands – Temperate grasslands are similar to tropical
grasslands, except it has warm summers followed by cold winters.
Average annual rainfall ranges between 30 and 35 inches. The temperate
grasslands are further categorized into Steppes and Prairies. Prairies are
characterized by grasslands with tall grasses and Steppes have grasslands
with relatively short grasses. Major grasslands include the Great Plains
of the Midwest and Palouse Prairie (America).

Deserts
Deserts are defined as biomes that receive less than 10 inches of rainfall
annually. Contrary to popular belief, not all deserts are hot. Antartica is
regarded as a desert as annual precipitation is less than 2 inches (interior
parts).
Animals have adapted to the heat by burrowing or living in caves. Other
animals have adopted a nocturnal lifestyle, where they stay underground
during the heat of the day and hunt food in the relative coolness of the
night.
Common terrestrial animals found in such habitats include antelopes,
camels, different species of fox, gazelles, goats etc. Also found are
endangered species such as the cheetah, African wild dogs, lizards,
hyrax, North African ostrich, and desert crocodiles.
Mountains
Mountains are large landforms that rise above the surrounding surface.
Typically, mountain regions have colder climates due to high elevations.
As a result, plants and animals residing in these regions have special
adaptations to cope up with the environment.

The Rocky Mountains of North America and the Andes in South

America are considered as mountainous regions due to their elevations
with respect to their surrounding areas. These form an uneven range that
can extend for thousands of miles.
Mountain fauna includes the bighorn sheep, brown and black bear,
grizzly bear, mountain goats, mountain lions, and antelope (not found in
the same region). Usually, forests are present are moderate elevations,
but become increasingly sparse as the elevation increases
Biome
A biome is a large area of land that is classified based on the climate,
plants and animals that make their homes there. Biomes contain many
ecosystems within the same area.
Land-based biomes are called terrestrial biomes. Water-based biomes
are called aquatic biomes. Temperatures, precipitation amounts and
prevalent organisms characterize the biomes of the world.
Terrestrial Biome Examples
Terrestrial biomes include tropical rainforests, temperate forests,
grasslands, deserts, tundra, taiga, savanna and chaparral.
1. Chaparral Biome
Scrubland and few trees characterize chaparral. Chaparral receives
between 25 and 30 inches of rain annually, chiefly in winter. Dry
summers mean dormancy for many plants. Chaparral can be found
throughout southern California and Baja, Mexico.
2. Desert Biome
Desert biomes receive less than 12 inches of precipitation annually and
experience very high temperatures. Desert subtypes include hot and
dry, semiarid, coastal and cold (Arctic).
Plants are adapted for low rainfall. Animals use burrowing or have
nocturnal activity to escape scorching daytime temperatures. Some types
of desert species include yuccas, cacti, reptiles, small mammals and
burrowing owls.
Example: the Mojave Desert of the American Southwest.
3.Tundra Biome
The coldest biome, the treeless Arctic tundra, receives only about 60
growing days and low precipitation. Plants consist mostly of shrubs,
lichens, mosses, sedges and liverworts. Tundra animals include
lemmings, caribou, migratory birds, mosquitos, flies and fish.
Example: the High Arctic Tundra in the islands of the Arctic Ocean.
4. Taiga Biome
Taiga (boreal forest) extends south of the Arctic Circle. Taiga endures
long, dry winters, cool, wet summers and a 130-day growing season.
Annual precipitation ranges from about 16 to 40 inches, typically as
snow.
Taiga hosts coniferous trees and low plants. Animal species of the taiga
include bears, moose, lynx, deer, hares and woodpeckers, among others.
Example: Interior Alaska-Yukon lowland taiga.
5. Grassland Biome
Grasslands represent biomes dominated by grass. The hot, tropical 
savanna takes up nearly half of Africa as well as parts of India, South
America and Australia.
Savannas receive concentrated rainfall for several months and then
drought. Few trees dot the grassy savanna.
Temperate grassland includes steppes, veldts and prairies. Moderate
precipitation, rich soils, hot summers and cold winters distinguish this
biome. The few trees grow along rivers. Some animals include deer,
gazelles, birds, insects and larger predators such as wolves and lions.
6.Rainforest Biome
The tropical rainforest biome contains the world’s greatest biodiversity.
Located near the equator, this biome experiences equal day length, warm
temperatures and up to 200 inches of rain annually.
These conditions lead to prolific plant growth in levels from the forest
floor to the canopy. Epiphytic plants grow on trees and other vegetation.
The Amazon Rainforest is an excellent example of a tropical rainforest
biome.
Temperate rainforests are found in higher latitudes, with cooler
temperatures but significant amounts of precipitation. Evergreens,
mosses and ferns thrive there. The Olympic National Park of
Washington State hosts temperate rainforests.
7.Temperate Deciduous Forest Biome
Temperate deciduous forests populate eastern North America, central
Europe and northeastern Asia. Distinct seasons, consistent precipitation
and varied temperatures yield a diverse biome.
Deciduous broadleaf trees, evergreens and other plants flourish. This
biome hosts many animal species including deer, rabbits, bears, birds,
insects and amphibians.
Example: Great Smoky Mountains National Park.
8.Alpine Biome
The mountainous alpine biome exists only at high altitudes. At those
levels, trees do not grow. Alpine regions receive about 180 days of
growing season.
A number of shrubs, grasses and heaths thrive. Mammals such as sheep,
elk, goats and pikas flourish. Some bird species and several types of
insects live there.
Example: the high Sierra Nevada mountain range in California.
Aquatic Biome Examples
Aquatic biomes are related to bodies of water.
1. Freshwater Biomes
Freshwater biomes contain water with very low salt concentrations and
include wetlands, lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.
Lakes and ponds undergo thermal mixing. These biomes host fish,
waterfowl, algae, crustaceans and microorganisms. Rivers and streams
constantly move toward either lakes or oceans. Their current speed
affects the kinds of species that live in them, as well as water clarity.
Example: the Columbia River in the Pacific Northwest.

2.Marine Biomes
Marine biomes include the oceans of the world, the largest aquatic
biomes, characterized by saltwater. Oceans possess various layers related
to sunlight’s penetration.
The intertidal zone hugs the shoreline and is greatly affected by tides
and waves.
The neritic zone extends to the continental shelf. Enough sunlight
penetrates for photosynthesis to take place. Seaweeds are often found
here.
The oceanic or pelagic zone extends farther and experiences a mix of
temperatures due to current. Large fish and sea mammals ply this zone.
The benthic zone is a deep region beyond the continental shelf. Here sea
stars, fish and sponges line the ocean floor.
The abyssal zone represents the deepest ocean zone. High pressure, cold
temperatures and essentially no sunlight characterize this zone.
3. Wetlands Biome
Wetlands are shallow bodies of water such as bogs, marshes, swamps
and mudflats. They provide habitat for many plants and animals. Water
flow is steady in freshwater wetlands.
Example: the Bolsa Chica Ecological Reserve in Orange County,
California.
4. Coral Reef Biome
Coral reefs exist in shallow parts of some tropical oceans. Made of
calcified remains from coral animals, these reefs build up over time and
provide habitat for many underwater species. The Great Barrier Reef of
Australia is a large example of a coral reef biome.
5. Estuary Biome
Estuaries lie where ocean meets fresh water. Plants tolerating the salinity
changes are called halophytic. Estuaries offer important breeding
grounds for crustaceans and well as waterfowl. An example of a large
estuary biome is that of the Florida Everglades.
Ecological adaptations
Adaptation is an evolutionary process whereby an organism becomes
increasingly well suited to living in a particular habitat. It is not a quick
process! Natural selection over many generations results in
helpful traits becoming more common in a population. This occurs
because individuals with these traits are better adapted to the
environment and therefore more likely to survive and breed.
Different types of adaptations
Marine organisms have adapted to the great diversity of habitats and
distinctive environmental conditions in the marine environment.

 Adaptations are many and varied but they are generally grouped into 3
main categories: structural, physiological and behavioural.
Structural adaptations
Structural (or morphological) adaptations are the physical features of the
organism. These include things like its shape or body covering, as well
as its internal organisation. Following are a few of the ways that marine
organisms have adapted their physical features to suit a particular
habitat.
Seawater is much denser than air – as a result, there are vast numbers of
microscopic organisms suspended in it. Cockles, as well as many other
bivalves, are filter feeders. They have adapted specialised siphon
structures to filter these organisms and any other particles of food from
the surrounding water.

Estuaries have quite variable conditions – tides, waves

and salinity fluctuations affect the animals and plants that live there on a
daily basis. Many animals, such as cockles, are adapted to live in these
conditions. They have strong shells that protect them from wave action,
drying out and the prying beaks of predators.

Coastal plants need special adaptations to survive. For example, many

types of seaweed attach firmly to rocks so they are not swept away by
waves. Their leaf-like fronds are tough and leathery, which helps protect
them from being torn by the waves or dried out by the sun.
Dolphins are mammals, but they look very different to mammals that
live on land, as they are adapted to living in water. They have a
streamlined shape and fins instead of legs. They also have blowholes on
the tops of their heads. They use these to breathe, rather than through
their mouths and noses. Find out more about New Zealand’s two 
endemic dolphin species.

Physiological adaptations
Physiological adaptations relate to how the
organism’s metabolism works. These adaptations enable the organism
to regulate their bodily functions, such as breathing and temperature, and
perform special functions like excreting chemicals as a defence
mechanism.

Some marine mammals, such as whales, migrate over large distances and
may spend time in a combination of arctic, tropical and temperate
waters. To cope with these temperature changes, they are endothermic or
‘warm blooded’. This means that they are able to maintain a constant
body temperature that is not dependent on the surrounding water.
Slow-moving species have adaptations that help protect them from
predators. For example, many marine organisms can only move slowly
or not all. This means they cannot easily get away from mobile
predators, and they have other adaptations to protect them from being
eaten. These can include chemical defences in their skin, for
example, sea stars.
Behavioural adaptations
Behavioural adaptations are learned or inherited behaviours that help
organisms to survive, for example, the sounds made by whales allow
them to communicate, navigate and hunt prey. Crab larvae use sounds to
help them find suitable habitats so they can settle and metamorphose
(change into an adult form).
Bryozoan colonies are found in high numbers on the continental shelf in
New Zealand. They look like plants but are actually made up of
hundreds of tiny individual animals that have banded together in order to
more successfully find food and survive predation,
Meanings

Seaweed
Seaweed is a type of algae and is normally grouped by colour – green,
red or brown. Seaweed is a primary producer and an important source of
nutrients and energy in the marine food web. Seaweed generally grows
in clusters called ‘beds’, and these provide an important source of shelter
for many marine species, including mussels.
Bryozoan colony
Bryozoans form colonies that often look a lot like a plant. However, they
are made up of hundreds of individual animals called zooids. Groups of
zooids are adapted to play different roles in the colony.
Animal Adaptations
Many plants and animals have adapted to the freshwater biome and
could not survive in water having a higher salt concentration. As this
ecosystem covers a vast portion of the world, the animal life found can
vary considerably.

Fish are able to obtain oxygen through their gills. Fish such as trout have
adapted to living in rivers and streams where the water is cooler, clearer
and has a higher oxygen level. At the mouth of these water sources, the
sediments create a more murky environment with lower oxygen levels
and fish such as catfish and carp have adapted to exist in these areas.
There are three zones in lakes and ponds:
The littoral zone (the topmost and warmest is home to snails, clams,
insects, crustaceans, fishes and amphibians and the eggs and larvae of
dragonflies and midges). These resources provide food for turtles, snakes
and ducks.

The limnetic zone is close to the surface and consequently receives a

good deal of light. This zone contains a variety of freshwater fish.

The profundal zone is very dense and cold, with little light penetrating
this region. Only heterotrophs (animals that eat dead organisms) are
found in the region.

Mammals (badgers, otters, mink) live near water and are capable of
swimming to catch their main food source, fish.
Amphibians and reptiles (toads, frogs, alligators, crocodiles, salamanders
and newts start life underwater as eggs and tadpoles, and then move to
ground as adults.
Insects such as skaters, water beetles, mosquitoes and dragonflies can
skim over the surface of ponds, playing a critical role in the food supply
for other animals. Some spiders can actually take a bubble of air with
them underwater

Many species of ducks, geese and swans also call the freshwater biome
their home, feeding on a number of different items including fish, while
wading birds such as herons and egrets wander through the mud
shallows searching for insects.

Manatees have adapted to survive in warm water and migrate south.

Some have found the warm water near power plants, and consequently
do not have to migrate.
Beavers shape their environment more than most other animal species
on Earth, utilizing their ever-growing teeth to cut down trees and plants
to create dams to create their dens. Their actions are not always
appreciated by nearby humans, but they are vital to the ecology, causing
a build-up of water which in turn creates a new wetland. Beavers also
help to purify water because the sediments and any toxins are trapped
behind the dam.
Terrestrial adaptation
Terrestrial adaptations are exhibited by the plants and animals living in
land habitats. As there are varied types of land habitats, the adaptations
shown by organisms also are of diverse kinds.
Fossorial adaptation
This adaptation occurs in the animals leading a subterranean mode of
life. They are equipped with digging organs and they dig for food,
protection, or for shelter. Zoologically, they tend to be primitive and
defenseless. The adaptational features are:
The body contour is cylindrical, spindle–shaped, or fusiform (e.g., 
earthworms, moles, badgers) so as to reduce resistance in subterranean
passage.
The head is small and tapers anteriorly to form a burrowing snout.
Neck and pinnae are reduced to avoid obstruction in quick movement
through the holes. In some, tail is also shortened.
The eyes remain small and non–functional.
Limbs are short and strong. Paws are broad and stout with long claws
and some extra structures for digging. In Gryllotalpa (mole–cricket), the
Cursorial adaptation
This is adaptation involving "running" and is required by those
organisms living in grassland habitats, since the lack of hiding places
means fast running is an important means of protection from the enemies
there. Horses, zebras, deer, and so forth show this adaptation, with
following modifications:
The neck is reduced and the body is streamlined, this will reduce the air
resistance while running.
The bones of palms (carpals, metacarpals) and soles (tarsus, metatarsus)
become compact and are often fused to form canon bone.
The forearm bone ulna and shank bone fibula are reduced.
Distal segments of both limbs, such as radius, tibia, and canon bones, are
elongated to increase the length of the stride.
Movement of the limbs is restricted to a fore-and-aft plane.
Arboreal adaptation
This is also known as scansorial adaptation and is found in animals that
live in trees or climb on rocks and walls. The features enabling them to
be best suited in the habitat are:
The chest, girdles, ribs, and limbs are strong and stout.
Feet and hands become prehensile (catching) with opposable digits
(e.g., primates, marsupials). Sometimes, the digits are grouped as 3 digits
and 2 digits in the syndactyly (e.g., Chameleon). For facilitating the
clinging, some have elongated claws (e.g., squirrels), while others bear
rounded adhesive pads at the tip of the digits (e.g., the tree frog Hyla). In
the wall lizard (Hemidactylus), there are double rows of lamellae in the
ventral side of digits for creating vacuum to cling. This enables the
animals to move even on the smooth vertical surfaces.
Often the tail becomes prehensile as well (e.g., chameleon, monkeys).
Desert Adaptation
Desert adaptations are for the mode of life in extreme terrestrial habitats.
Desert plants (xerophytes) and animals (xerocoles) show adaptations for
three challenges: getting moisture, conserving moisture, and defending
oneself from biotic and abiotic factors. Many of these adaptations are
just physiological and behavioral:
Different plants and animals adopt different mechanisms to procure
enough water. The sand lizard (Molcoh) and horned
toad (Phrynosoma) have hygroscopic skin to absorb moisture like the
blotting paper even from unsaturated air. The kangaroo
rat (Dipodomys) fulfills its water needs from metabolic synthesis. Others
satisfy their water needs through the food they consume.
Desert animals prevent water loss from their body by reducing surface
area, making skin impermeable through its thickening and hardening, as
well as through the presence of scales and spines (Phrynosoma, Moloch),
reducing the number of sweat glands in mammals, avoiding day heat by
seeking the shadows of rocks and becoming active at night (nocturnal),
and excreting wastes as solid dry pellets.
Some desert animals store water in their body and use it economically;
the camel stores water in the tissues all over the body, whereas the desert
lizard (Uromastix) stores it in the large intestine.
Because of sand and dust in the air, the ears, eyes, and nostrils are
protected by valves, scales, fringes, eyelids, or by being reduced in size.
Jackrabbits (Lepus), [fox]es (Vulpes velox), others have large pinnae to
function as efficient heat radiators without having to lose moisture.
Coloration and behavior allow animals to harmonize with the desert
surroundings. For example, sand colored and rough
skinned Phrynosoma on detecting threats digs in the sand to obliterate
the body contour and to harmonize in the background.
Possession of venom (poison) is for self–defense and almost all desert 
snakes and spiders are poisonous.
Protective adaptation
Protection from enemies, predators, and even mistakes is achieved by the
use of protective devices and mechanisms, such as slippery surfaces,
horns, spines, unpleasant smells (e.g., shrew), poison, hard
shells, autotomy (self cutting) of tail (e.g., wall lizard), or by the use of
coloration together with behavioral postures. Colorations are used for
different purposes:

Cryptic coloration or camouflage is for making the animals invisible or

indistinct from the environment by assimilating with the background or
by breaking up the body contour. Animals living in snowy conditions
may be white, forest animals may be striped or spotted, and desert
animals may be sandy colored. The chameleon has several layers and
varieties of chromatophores that enable it to change its colors according
to the color of the surroundings.
Resemblance coloration, together with morphological features and
behavioral postures, make the animals resemble exactly the particular
uninteresting objects of the environment, thus deriving protection. Some
of the examples are stick insects, leaf insects (Phyllium), and others.
Warning coloration is meant to avoid the mistake encounter of
dangerous animals in general, or the encounter of unpalatable organisms
by predators. The animals bear this coloration to advertise their being
dangerous or unpalatable. Gila monster (Heloderma), the only known
poisonous lizard, has bright black, brown yellow, and orange bands.
Most poisonous snakes possess warning coloration. Bees and wasps
 warn others of their stings.
Mimicry is defined as the imitation of one organism by another for the
purpose of concealment, protection, or other advantages. The species
that imitates is called a mimic and the one which is copied a model.
Depending on the purposes of mimicry, it can be protective or
aggressive.
Protective mimicry is a protective simulation by a harmless species
in form, appearance, color, and behavior of another species that is
unpalatable or dangerous. For example, certain harmless flies with a
pair of wings may mimic four winged bees or wasps that are well
known dangerous insects, thus deriving protection. This is Batesian
mimicry. If two species have same warning coloration and mutually
advertise their dangerousness or unpalatability so as to make
predators learn to avoid both of them, then it is called Mullerian
mimicry.
Aggressive mimicry is used by predators. Here, a predator mimics
the organism favored by its prey so as to trap the latter. For example,
the African lizard resembles a flower, or a spider may resemble the
flower of an orchid, and so forth.