Design And Analysis Of Algorithms

Problem
The Mario brothers are hired to outfit the Stata Center with a plumbing system. There is a set
of n rooms in the building that ideally would all have plumbing. However, due to a reduced
budget compounded by a fear of leaks, the administrators ask the brothers to provide the
minimum piping needed to service at least the rooms in a mission-critical subset S of all rooms.
The Mario brothers have asked you to help find the piping of minimum overall length that serves
all rooms in S, and may serve some other rooms in the building as well. Keep in mind that, for
engineering reasons, pipes can only be joined inside rooms.

(a) Luigi, one of the Mario brothers, assumes that any pair of rooms can be connected by
pipes and suggests finding the Minimum Pipe Spanning Tree (MPST) for the rooms in
the mission-critical set S. Let G be a complete graph where vertices represent rooms
in the building and the weight of each edge is the length of the pipes required to
connect the corresponding rooms. The MPST for S is simply the Minimum Spanning
Tree for the subgraph of G induced by S. Provide an example of a room graph where
finding the MPST for S would not give the piping of minimum overall length.

Solution:
See figure below.
(b) Luigi has taken a closer look at the blueprint, which shows the distance d(x, y) for
each pair of rooms x, y in the building. He notes that the distances between any two
rooms satisfy the triangle inequality. So, for any three rooms x,y and z, d(x, z) ≤ d(x,
y) + d(y, z).
Assume any pair of rooms x,y can be connected using a pipe of length d(x, y). Devise
an efficient polynomial-time approximation algorithm for the plumbing problem with
an approximation ratio α ≤ 2. Hint: Consider building an MPST on S.

Solution:
This is the metric Steiner tree problem. Construct an MST T on the subgraph
induced by set S. The claim is that the cost of the MST is 2 · O P T .

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 Proof Take a Steiner tree of cost OPT. Double the edges (as in the 2-approximation
algorithm for TSP). Find an Euler tour in the resulting Eulerian graph, by traversing
the edges with a DFS. The cost of the Euler tour is 2 · O P T . Use shortcutting trick to
obtain a Hamiltonian cycle on vertices of S. By triangle inequality the shortcuts don’t
increase the cost of tour. If an arbitrary edge of this Hamiltonian cycle is deleted we
obtain a path that spans S with a cost at most 2 · O P T .

(c) Mario notes that due to the topology of the building, pipes can only run between
some pairs of rooms and not others. What’s more, Alyssa P. Hacker sets up a few
strategic wormholes, shortcuts through spacetime, so that the pipe-based space-time
displacements no longer satisfy the triangle inequality.
You are provided with an updated blueprint of possible direct pipe connections and
effective pipe lengths for each of them. Devise a polynomial-time approximation
algorithm with approximation ratio α ≤ 2, using what you learned in part (b).

Solution:
We produce a polynomial reduction from the Steiner tree problem to the metric Steiner
problem in (b) that also preserves the approximation factor. Use John- son’s or Floyd
Warshall algorithm to compute all pairs shortest paths for the input graph, yielding a a
complete graph that encodes all of the shortest path weights be- tween all pairs of
vertices in original graph. By construction it satisfies the triangle inequality. Since all
edges in E ′ that were also in E have a cost smaller than or equal to those in E , the
cost of the optimal solution to the transformed graph will not exceed that of the
optimal solution to original problem.
Now we prove the converse. Given a Steiner tree T ′ we obtain a Steiner tree T in
polynomial time of at most the same cost. Replace each of T ′ by the correspond- ing
shortest path to obtain a subgraph of G. All the vertices are connected, but the
subgraph may contain cycles. Remove edges to obtain tree T . By construction the
reduction preserves the approximation factor.

Problem 2. Huffman Coding

than f j :
(a) You are working with a Huffman encoding scheme over n symbols. How long could
a codeword be in the worst case? Provide an example set of frequencies f 1 , f 2, . . . f n
(as a closed formula of n) that would give rise to this longest codeword.

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Solution:
Consider the following set of frequencies: f −i n−i = 2 for i ∈ {1, . . . n − 1} for an
alphabet of length n. The longest codeword will have length n − 1. The cumulative sum
of all frequencies up to and including the j − 1-th smallest frequency will be less than fj :
Pj−1 i=1 fi < fj . So, by construction, the tree will be a spine with a leaf joining each
intermediate subtree.
A
5
3
B D 5
3

5 3

Figure 1: Illustration of a complete graph D 4 . The shaded,

outlying nodes are part of the required set S. The MST
for outlying nodes will have a higher cost than the tree
that also spans the internal vertex.

1/2 B

1/4 C

1/8 1/16

Figure 2: Illustration of a Huffman code tree

with the longest codeword for n = 4.

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(b) Prove that if some character occurs with frequency more than 2/5, then there is guar-
anteed to be a codeword of length 1.

Solution:

Figure 3: Illustration of a hypothetical tree with no codewords of length 1.

Assume for the purpose of obtaining a contradiction that there is no codeword

of length 1. Then both children of the root can not be leaves. Let the left child
of the root be L, right child R, and the two children of each subtree a, b, and c,
d respectively.
Without loss of generality assume that the character with frequency greater than
2/5 appears in the subtree a of the left child of the root. The right subtree R
will have to have combined weight more than 2/5, since otherwise R being
smaller than a would be joined first with b. The combined weight on b will be
less than 1/5 since the total sum of frequencies has to add up to 1.
At the same time, the right subtree has to have cumulative weight less than 3/5,
since one of the elements in L has frequency in excess of 2/5. One of the two
subtrees of R has to have weight less then 3/10, but then it would be combined
with subtree b, since the total weight of R is greater than 2/5 and so the other
subtree of R would have weight greater than that of b.
This is a contradiction since, b was joined with a, so there is guaranteed to be a
code- word of length 1.

(c) Prove that if all characters occur with frequency less than 1/3, then there is
guaranteed to be no codeword of length 1.

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 Solution:
There have to be at least 4 symbols in the alphabet. Assume by contradic- tion
that there is a codeword of length 1. The codeword of length 1 will branch from
the root of the tree. WLOG say it has frequenct f x . By construction of the Huffman
code tree, it has to have been merged with a subtree, that is a result of two
subtrees (possibly leaves), call them A and B. Both A and B have to have
cumulative weight less than f x , since this last element was pulled last from the
priority queue. Then, since f x ≤ 1/3 by assumption that all characters occur with
frequency less than 1/3,
w(A) + w(B) + f x < 1. This is a contradiction. Since the sum of all weights in
the subtree has to add up to 1.

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