Nature

of Heat
HISTORICAL
FICTION
 Caloric Theory
Physicists believed that
● Heat is an invisible fluid that is called caloric.

● Heat can flow from higher caloric to lower caloric

body.

● Hot body contains more caloric than cold body.

● Heat lost=Heat gained

 Arguments Against the Caloric
Theory
• When bodies are heated so that they change state
(solid to liquid or liquid to gas), an increase in
caloric cannot be detected.
• When different materials are given the same
amount
of heat, their temperatures increase by different
amounts indicating that they have received different
quantities of caloric.
Count Rumford's Experiment
Benjamin Thompson is an American man who fled to
Europe, where he was named Count Rumford in
recognition of his scientific work. In 1798 Benjamin
Thompson also known as Count Rumford proposed
the kinetic theory of heat. His experiment was called
the Cannon Boring Experiment. In drilling the hole
within the cannon, Count Rumford made the
following observations:
1. The procedure produced a lot of heat energy.
2. The longer the drilling occurred the greater the
amount of heat produced.
3. When the cannon boring was done in water,
enough heat was produced to convert water into
steam.
4. The tiny drops of metal produced in the drilling
procedure were hot enough to burn through skin.
From the observations he concluded the following:
1. Heat was generated from motion.
2. Since heat could be generated then it is not
possible for heat to be a material substance (since
matter cannot be created).
Rumford also argued that the seemingly indefinite
generation of heat was incompatible with the
caloric theory, because if ‘caloric’ was a material
substance, there would be a time when all of it had
left a cannon. He contended that the only thing
communicated to the barrel was motion.

Conclusion: Count Rumford realised that the

thermal energy produced when a cannon was
being bored was inexhaustible and depended
only on the work done in boring the hole. If
caloric was a material substance, there would be
a time when all has left the cannon.
 Kinetic theory
This theory replaced the Caloric Theory. According
to the kinetic theory, the particles of matter (atoms,
molecules, etc.) are in constant motion of vibration,
translation or rotation, and the kinetic energies they
possess are responsible for their temperatures.
There are spaces between the particles, as well as
attractive forces which pull them together when they
are near to each other.
 Joule’s experiment
Two bodies, each of mass, m, and attached to the
ends of a string, were allowed to fall through a height
h, as shown in the diagram below. As they
descended, a spindle mechanism caused the strings
to turn paddles in the water. On reaching the lowest
point, the masses were quickly wound up to the
starting position using a slip ratchet system and then
were allowed to fall once more. This was repeated
several times (n times).
The work done by the paddles in churning the water
was equal to the gravitational potential energy of the
falling masses which transformed into a rise in
thermal energy of the water.
 Past Questions

Ans: C
 Past Questions

Ans: A
 Past Questions

Ans: C
Temperature
 What is Temperature?
The temperature of an object may be considered to
be the 'degree of hotness or coldness'.
 Difference between Heat and
Temperature
Heat is not the same as temperature. Heat is a form of energy,
temperature is a measure of how concentrated that energy is in
an object. Heat tells us about the total energy in an object,
temperature tells us about the Kinetic energy of the individual
particles in that object. A bath of cool water has a lot of heat
energy but a low temperature, because each water molecule
does not move very fast. In a mug of boiling water, the molecules
have a lot of kinetic energy and move very quickly, so the
temperature is high, but the heat is much less than in the cool
bath because there are many fewer molecules in a mug.
Facts
● The temperature of a substance determines the direction of the
net energy transfer called heat energy, between two objects.
The net flow of heat energy takes place from a hotter object to
a colder object.

● Physical properties that vary with temperature are used for

measuring temperature. Properties such as gas pressure,
expansion of liquids and solids, and electrical resistance of
conductors and semiconductors have been utilised in making
thermometers.

● The temperature of a body relates to the average kinetic energy

of the particles in that body. The faster particles are moving, the
higher the temperature. For instance, when a body is heated
some absorbed energy is stored in the particles while some
energy increases the movement speed of particles.
 Past Questions

Ans: C
 Past Questions

Ans: (i) The direction of net heat transfer from block B to Block
A.
Thermometer
 Thermometer
The features required in a particle thermometer
depends on how it is to be used. In some cases, it is
the speed with which the thermometer responds that
matters most. The temperature range over which a
thermometer can operate is also important. The type
of thermometer chosen, too, should be convenient for
use in a particular application.
There are design features which make a
thermometer suitable for its particular task.

● A suitable thermometric property.

● A suitable range.

● A suitable scale.
 Scale
A temperature scale is used for measuring
temperature.
● Celsius scale

● Fahrenheit scale

● Kelvin scale
But for this lesson, we will be looking mainly at
the Celsius scale, which introduces us to the
fixed points and brief notes on the Kelvin
scale.
 Celsius Scale
-Based on the properties of
water.

The upper fixed point is the temperature of

steam just above boiling water known as
the steam point. The steam point is fixed at
100°C.

The lower fixed point is the temperature of

melting pure ice known as the ice point.
The ice point is fixed at 0°C
ADDITIONAL NOTES:
The lower fixed point
● Freeze some pure (distilled) water.

● Crush the ice into small, roughly pea-sized pieces and fill a
funnel with them.

● When the ice begins to melt (and has warmed up to 0 °C)

insert the bulb of a thermometer so that it is covered with ice
(Figure 8.3.1a). This should cool all the mercury to 0 °C.

● When the mercury stops shrinking, mark the stem of the

thermometer at the mercury level.
This is 0°C, the lower fixed point or ice point, on the Celsius
scale.
ADDITIONAL NOTES:
The upper fixed point
● Arrange the thermometer inside a flask so that its bulb is just
above the surface of boiling water.

● When the mercury stops expanding, mark its level on the

thermometer stem.

● This is 100 °C, the upper fixed point or steam point, on the
Celsius scale.

● If you are making a thermometer, divide the distance between

these two fixed points into 100 equal parts, marked as a scale
along the stem.
Special conditions for accurate fixed points
● The ice must be pure because impurities lower the freezing
point of water. There are some everyday applications of this
effect. For example, in cold countries salt is used on the roads in
winter to lower the freezing point of rainwater or melted snow,
making it less likely to freeze. Antifreeze is added to car
radiators to prevent water freezing.

● The thermometer bulb is not immersed in boiling water

because the temperature at which water boils is also affected
by impurities. In this case, a dissolved impurity such as salt
raises the boiling point.

● The steam above boiling water does not contain molecules of

any dissolved impurities, although its temperature is affected by
pressure. To find the steam point accurately the pressure above
the water must be standard atmospheric pressure, which is 760
mm of mercury.
 Kelvin Scale
-Based on properties of ideal
gases and the energy of
particles.

The point of the scale where particles have

zero thermal energy, so they cannot become N.B:
any colder is called the absolute zero. At this
temperature, all molecular motion is an increase of 1
Kelvin is defined
presumed to cease. to be the same as
an increase of 1
degree Celsius.
The relationship between these two scales is:
Kelvin temperature= Celsius temperature+273
T=°C + 273

Example; Convert the following

1. 57° to a temperature on the kelvin scale

T=°C+273
T=57+273
T=330K
1. 100K to a temperature on the celsius scale.

T=°C+273
T-273=°C+273-273
T-273=°C
100-273=-173°C
 Past Questions

Ans: A
 Past Questions

Ans: D
 Past Questions

Ans:(ii)325K
 Past Questions

Ans: C
 Past Questions

Ans: B
 Past Questions

Ans: B
 Types of Thermometers
Any physical property which varies with temperature
can be used to measure temperature change.

Laboratory Clinical
Thermocouples
Thermometer Thermometer
 Laboratory Thermometer
The laboratory thermometer is a 'Iiquid-in-glass'
thermometer which uses either mercury or alcohol as
the liquid.
● Mercury Thermometers(range -39°C to 357°C) and
Alcohol thermometers(range -117°C to 79°C).

● A reservoir of liquid, mercury or colored alcohol, is

contained at the bottom of the thermometer in a
'bulb'. This is required so that there will be enough
liquid to give a measurable expansion. The reservoir is
connected to a narrow capillary tube through which the
liquid will expand and rise upwards. The higher the
 temperature of the alcohol the further the capillary tube
liquid will rise.

Advantages of a MERCURY thermometer

• Mercury is a metal so it has a high conductivity and a low
specific heat capacity.
This means its temperature quickly adjusts to the temperature it
is measuring.
• The boiling point of mercury is 357 °C and therefore the
thermometer is suitable for most
laboratory experiments done at school. If alcohol was used as the
liquid, it would evaporate and
distil on the upper part of the bore.
• Mercury is bright silver and can easily be seen.
• The thermometer has a linear scale which is easy to read.
Disadvantages of a MERCURY thermometer
• It cannot be used to measure very cold temperatures
because mercury freezes at -39°C.
• It is expensive.
• Mercury is poisonous.

Want to know the advantages and

disadvantages of alcohol
thermometer-
http://users.telenet.be/instrumentatie/temperature/
alcohol-vs-mercury-as-a-thermometer-liquid.html
 Past Questions

Ans: B
 Past Questions

Ans: D
 Clinical Thermometer
It is used to measure body temperatures.
The shape of this thermometer is designed to
magnify the capillary tube and make it easier to read
the temperature
● Range from 35°C to 42°C.

● Clinical thermometer is needed to be removed from

the patient before they can read. To prevent an
inaccurate reading as a liquid contracts a small
constriction is built into the thermometer that breaks
the liquid thread. The liquid can be returned to the
bulb after the reading by flicking the thermometer.
Clinical thermometers take a few minutes to reach
thermal equilibrium and display an accurate
temperature because of this most are now being
replaced by electronic thermometers.
The following should be noted:
• The scale ranges only from 34°C or 35 °C to 43°C because
the normal body temperature of a
human is 37 0C.

• The interval between markings on the scale is 0.1 °C so

that a very precise reading is obtained.

• There is a narrow constriction in the bore. When the

thermometer is removed from the patient, the sudden
change in temperature causes a rapid contraction of the
mercury. As the mercury
rushes toward the bulb, the thread breaks at the
constriction, leaving the thread above it to
be read.

• Mercury is poisonous

• This type of clinical thermometer is rapidly being

replaced by an electron ic, digital thermometer.

More info on mercury vs

alcohol thermometers:
https://www.hunker.com/1340823
2/mercury-thermometer-vs-alcoh
ol-thermometer
 Past Questions

Ans: D
 Past Questions

Ans: B
Difference between Clinical and
Laboratory Thermometer
 Thermocouples
In the thermocouple thermometer an E.M.F. is
produced when the junctions are at different
temperatures. The magnitude of this E.M.F. depends
on the difference in temperatures between the two
junctions. The millivoltmeter is modified to read N.B:
temperature instead of millivolts.
(EMF)
stands for
electromotiv
e force.
● A thermocouple is an electrical thermometer which relies on
the potential difference(p.d) for use when two different metals
are connected. The (p.d) produced varies with the
temperature. Thermocouples can measure very high
temperatures( beyond the melting point of glass) and they
respond very quickly to changes. The p.d. they produced, can
also be recorded quite simply by data loggers or computers.
This can then be converted and a temperature shown on a
digital display making it very easy to read. These properties
mean that thermocouples are used extensively in industry.
Advantages of a thermocouple
• It responds quickly to temperature changes because metals have
high conductivities and low
specific heat capacities. It is therefore useful for measuring
rapidly changing temperatures.

• It takes very little heat from the body it is measuring and is

therefore capable of determining the
temperature of a small body without noticeably altering its
temperature.

• It can withstand very low and very high temperatures and is

therefore useful for measuring temperatures in freezers and in
furnaces.
 • Since it is electrical, it can be connected to digital displays and
computer systems.

Disadvantages of a thermocouple
• Large temperature differences produce only small changes in
emf. It is therefore not useful for detecting small changes in
temperature.

• The measuring instrument used with a thermocouple must be

sensitive to small changes in emf and this can be expensive.

• The scale is non-linear and is therefore difficult to read.

 Past Questions

Ans: C
 Thermometric Property
- a property of a material which varies
with the temperature.

Table Showing Examples of thermometers and

their thermometric properties
Thermometer Thermometric property as
temperature increases (Next slide)
 Thermometric property as temperature
Thermometer increases

liquid-in-glass volume of liquid increases

constant-pressure gas thermometer volume of gas increases at constant
pressure

constant-volume gas thermometer pressure of gas increases at constant

volume

thermoelectric thermometer (thermocouple) emf produced varies non-linearly

resistance thermometer resistance increases

thermistor resistance usually decreases but increases
for some types
Thermometers
(Next slide)
Name Physical property based upon How it operates Range (◦C) Usage Advantages Disadvantages
Liquid in glass Liquid expansion When the liquid in the bore is heated, it expands -20 - 50 *Walk-in freezers *Cheap * Colorless- difficult to see (dyed red)
- Alcohol moving up the bore of the thermometer *Artic conditions *Lightweight *Sticks to bore
*Portable (adhesive with glass)
* Easy to use *Not a “remote sensing device”
*High expansion * Cannot measure high temperatures
- thick bore
* Low freezing point

Liquid in glass Liquid expansion When the liquid in the bore is heated, it expands -10 - 110 *Laboratory *Cheap * Cannot measure low temperatures
- Mercury moving up the bore of the thermometer *Lightweight *Not a “remote sensing device”
(Laboratory) *Portable
* Easy to use
*Low expansion
- thin bore
* High freezing point

Liquid in glass Liquid expansion When the liquid in the bore is heated, it expands 35 - 42 *Medical *Cheap *Not a “remote sensing device”
- Mercury moving up the bore of the thermometer *Lightweight
*Portable
(Clinical) * Easy to use
*Sensitive (reads down to 0.1◦C)
*Constriction “holds” reading

Bimetallic strip thermometer Solid expansion Two metals of different linear expansivity are melded -100 - 550 *Cooking thermometers *Cheap *Low accuracy
together and shaped into a coil. One end is fixed and - Oven *Lightweight *Not a “remote sensing device”
the other attached to a pointer. As it expands it - Meat *Portable
curves such that the metal of greater expansivity will - Candy * Easy to use
be on the outer arc. * Rugged
* Large range

Constant volume gas thermometer Gas pressure increases with Under conditions of constant volume, gas pressure is -200 - 800 * “Gas” Laboratories *Very high accuracy *Expensive
temperature directly proportional to temperature *Calibrating thermometers * Large range *Bulky
*Very difficult to use
*Too responsive

Name Physical property based upon How it operates Range (◦C) Usage Advantages Disadvantages
Thermocouple Thermoelectric effect If the junctions of two different metals are held at -200 - 1500 * Car temperature gauge * Very responsive *Not easily portable
different temperatures a current is produced that is * Industry * Remote reading
proportional to the temperature difference at the * Large range
junctions * Not expensive
* Rugged

Thermister The resistance of a semiconductor The resistance of the semiconductor is proportional -200 - 1500 Industry * Very responsive *Not easily portable
decreases with increasing to the temperature * Remote reading
temperature * Large range
* Not expensive
* Rugged

Platinum resistance thermometer The resistance of a metal increases The resistance of the metal is proportional to the -200 - 1500 Industry * Very responsive *Not easily portable
with increasing temperature temperature * Remote reading
* Large range
* Not expensive
* Rugged
 END OF
PRESENTATION
Group Members: Gabrielle, Kirsha, Kerrian, Adrian.