DATA COMMUNICATION &

NETWORK

-AMRIT GUPTA
 UNIT 1
Fundamentals of Communication System; Communication
Links, Communication System Formats; Character Codes,
Digital Data Rates; Asynchronous and Synchronous Data. Types
of signals: AM; FM; PM; PCM; PDM; TDMA; FDMA; SDMA; CDMA;
ASK; FSK; PSK Features: Error detection and correction codes;
Hamming codes.

UNIT 2
LAN topologies: Workstation; Server; Cables; Types of
Ethernet; Broadband and base-band; Optical Fibers; Network
Interface Card.

UNIT 3
Networks and accessories: LAN, MAN, WAN; Hub; Bridges;
Switches; Routers; Gateways Cell Relay; Frame Relay; ISDN;
B-ISDN.
 UNIT 4
OSI Model; Broadcasting; Multicasting; Point-to-point
communication; IP Addressing, Concepts of Port; Socket; ATM;
Tunneling; Virtual Private Network. Network Operating
systems: Unix; Linux; Windows.

UNIT 5
Mobile Communication: Applications of Mobile Communication;
Wireless Communication: Bandwidth, Transmission
Impairment, Interference, Terrestrial Microwave, Broadcast
Radio, Infrared & Light Waves, Mobile Internet & WML: Mobile
IP, Wireless TCP& UDP, WAP, WML
UNIT 1
 Communication System
 What is Communication ?
 What is Communication System ?
 Components:
• Source (sender)
• Message
• Channel/Medium
• Receiver
• Noise (interference)
• Environment
• Feedback
 Communication Links
The communications channel that connects two or more
communicating devices.
This link may be an actual physical link or it may be a logical link that
uses one or more actual physical links.

Example:
Two nodes of a network, an intercom station at an entryway with a
single internal intercom station, a radio path between two points, etc
 Communication System Formats
 Analog communication systems
 Digital communication systems
 Baseband communication systems
 Carrier communication systems

Link https://www.vedantu.com/
physics/communication-systems
 Character Codes
Alternatively referred to as the character set, charset,
and character encoding, a character code describes a specific
encoding for characters as defined in the code page. Each character
code defines how the bits in a stream of text are mapped to the
characters they represent. ASCII is the basis of most code pages.

Example, the value for a character "C" is represented by 67 in ASCII.

 Digital Data Rates

(1) The speed at which digital data is transferred within the

computer or between a peripheral device and the computer,
measured in bytes per second.

(2) The speed at which audio and video files are encoded

(compressed), measured in bits per second.

(3) The transmission speed of a network. For example, 100Base-T

Ethernet is rated at 100 Mbps (megabits per second). Also called "bit
rate.“

Different Units
Asynchronous & Synchronous Data

 Synchronous Data:
The term synchronous is used to describe a
continuous and consistent timed transfer of data blocks.
The data is sent in blocks (called frames or packets)
spaced by fixed time intervals.
Used when large amounts of data must be transferred
very quickly from one location to the other.

 Asynchronous Data:
Asynchronous data is data that is not synchronized
when it is sent or received.
Data that is transmitted at intermittent intervals
rather than in a steady stream, which means that the first
parts of the complete file might not always be the first to
be sent and arrive at the destination.
Asynchronous & Synchronous Data
Asynchronous & Synchronous Data
 Types of Modulation
 AM (Amplitude Modulation)
 FM (Frequency Modulation)
 PM (Phase Modulation)
 PCM (Pulse Code Modulation)
 PDM (Pulse Density Modulation)
 TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
 FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
 SDMA (Spatial Division Multiple Access)
 CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
 ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying)
 FSK (Frequency Shift Keying)
 PSK (Phase Shift Keying)
 Types of Modulation
AM v/s FM v/s PM
 All these modulation types are analog modulation
techniques.
 used to transmit information from one place to the distant
place.
 Mostly this techniques are employed in wireless
communication.
AM v/s FM
AM v/s FM
AM v/s FM
AM v/s FM
AM v/s FM
AM v/s FM v/s PM
 AM v/s FM v/s PM

Double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission (DSB-SC)

Vestigial sideband (VSB)
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)
Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM)
TDMA
TDMA
TDMA
FDMA
FDMA
SDMA
CDMA
CDMA
TDMA v/s FDMA v/s SDMA v/s CDMA
TDMA v/s FDMA v/s SDMA v/s CDMA
 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
It is the digital modulation technique. In this technique,
amplitude of the RF carrier is varied in accordance with
baseband digital input signal. The figure depicts operation of
ASK modulation. As shown in the figure, binary 1 will be
represented by carrier signal with some amplitude while binary
0 will be represented by carrier of zero amplitude(i.e. no
carrier).
 ASK
Application: ASK is used to transmit digital data over optical
fiber
 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
It is also digital modulation technique. In this technique,
frequency of the RF carrier is varied in accodance with
baseband digital input. The figure depicts the FSK modulation.
As shown, binary 1 and 0 is represented by two different carrier
frequencies. Figure depicts that binary 1 is represented by high
frequency 'f1' and binary 0 is represented by low frequency 'f2'.
 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Application: over voice lines, in high-freq. radio transmission,
etc.
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
It is digital modulation technique where in phase of the RF
carrier is changed based on digital input. Figure depicts Binary
Phase Shift Keying modulation type of PSK. As shown in the
figure, Binary 1 is represented by 180 degree phase of the
carrier and binary 0 is represented by 0 degree phase of the RF
carrier.
ASK v/s FSK v/s PSK
Error
 Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

A cyclic redundancy check (CRC) is a non-secure hash

function designed to detect accidental changes to digital
data in computer networks. It is not suitable for detecting
maliciously introduced errors. It is characterized by
specification of a generator polynomial, which is used as the
divisor in a polynomial long division over a finite field, taking
the input data as the dividend. The remainder becomes the
result.

A CRC has properties that make it well suited for detecting

burst errors. CRCs are particularly easy to implement in
hardware and are therefore commonly used in computer
networks and storage devices such as hard disk drives.
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
 HAMMING CODES
Hamming code is a set of error-correction code s that can be used to detect and correct
bit errors that can occur when computer data is moved or stored. Hamming code is named
for R. W. Hamming of Bell Labs.
Like other error-correction code, Hamming code makes use of the concept of parity and
parity bit s, which are bits that are added to data so that the validity of the data can be
checked when it is read or after it has been received in a data transmission. Using more than
one parity bit, an error-correction code can not only identify a single bit error in the data
unit, but also its location in the data unit.
Computing parity involves counting the number of ones in a unit of data, and adding either a
zero or a one (called a parity bit ) to make the count odd (for odd parity) or even (for even
parity). For example, 1001 is a 4-bit data unit containing two one bits; since that is an even
number, a zero would be added to maintain even parity, or, if odd parity was being
maintained, another one would be added. To calculate even parity, the XOR operator is used;
to calculate odd parity, the XNOR operator is used. Single bit errors are detected when the
parity count indicates that the number of ones is incorrect, indicating that a data bit has been
flipped by noise in the line. Hamming codes detect two bit errors by using more than one
parity bit, each of which is computed on different combinations of bits in the data. The
number of parity bits required depends on the number of bits in the data transmission, and is
calculated by the Hamming rule:
d + p + 1 < = 2 (1)
Where d is the number of data bits and p is the number of parity bits. The total of the two is
called the Hamming code word, which is generated by multiplying the data bits by a
generator matrix .
UNIT 2
 LAN TOPOLOGIES

 PHYSICAL
 LOGICAL

TOPOLOGIES:
1) BUS
2) STAR or HUB
3) RING
4) MESH
5) HYBRID
 BUS TOPOLOGY

Bus topology is a network type in which every computer

and network device is connected to a single cable. It
transmits the data from one end to another in a single
direction. No bi-directional feature is in bus topology. It is a
multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because if
the backbone fails the topology crashes.
 BUS TOPOLOGY

Advantages of this topology : 

 If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the
number of cables required to connect them is 1, which is known as
backbone cable, and N drop lines are required.
 The cost of the cable is less as compared to other topologies, but it
is used to build small networks.

 Problems with this topology : 

 If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
 If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network.
To avoid this, various protocols are used in the MAC layer known as
Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.
 Security is very low.
 STAR TOPOLOGY

In star topology, all the devices are connected to a

single hub through a cable. This hub is the central node and
all other nodes are connected to the central node. The hub
can be passive in nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such as
broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be
intelligent known as an active hub. Active hubs have
repeaters in them. 
 STAR TOPOLOGY

Advantages of this topology : 

 If N devices are connected to each other in a star
topology, then the number of cables required to connect
them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
 Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the
hub, therefore the total number of ports required is N.
Problems with this topology : 
 If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology
relies fails, the whole system will crash down.
 The cost of installation is high.
 Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e.
hub.
 RING TOPOLOGY

In this topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with

its exactly two neighboring devices.
A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a
large number of nodes, because if someone wants to send
some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100
nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to
reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters
are used in the network.
 RING TOPOLOGY
The following operations take place in ring topology are : 
 
 One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the responsibility to
perform the operations.
 To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the transmission
is done, the token is to be released for other stations to use.
 When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the
ring.
 There are two types of token release techniques: Early token release releases
the token just after transmitting the data and Delay token release releases
the token after the acknowledgment is received from the receiver.
Advantages of this topology : 
 The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
 Cheap to install and expand.
Problems with this topology : 
 Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
 The addition of stations in between or removal of stations can disturb the
whole topology.
 Less secure.
 MESH TOPOLOGY

In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another

device via a particular channel. 

Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other

in a mesh topology, the total number of ports that are required by
each device is N-1. In Figure 1, there are 5 devices connected to
each other, hence the total number of ports required by each
device is 4. Total number of ports required=N*(N-1).
Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a
mesh topology, then the total number of dedicated links required to
connect them is NC2 i.e. N(N-1)/2. In Figure, there are 5 devices
connected to each other, hence the total number of links required
 MESH TOPOLOGY
Advantages of this topology : 
 It is robust.
 The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because
data is transferred among the devices through dedicated
channels or links.
 Provides security and privacy.
Problems with this topology : 
 Installation and configuration are difficult.
 The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required,
hence suitable for less number of devices.
 The cost of maintenance is high.
HYBRID TOPOLOGY
 WORKSTATIONS
A workstation is a computer intended for individual use
that is faster and more capable than a personal computer.
It's intended for business or professional use (rather than
home or recreational use).
Workstations and applications designed for them are used
by small engineering companies, architects, graphic designers,
and any organization, department, or individual that requires
a faster microprocessor, a large amount of RAM.
A workstation is more capable than a personal
computer (PC) but is less advanced than a server (which can
manage a large network of peripheral PCs or workstations and
handle immense data-processing and reporting tasks)
For critical applications like bulk data processing for tasks
such as censuses, industry and consumer statistics, enterprise
resource planning, and large-scale transaction processing.
Eg: HP Z series
Apple Mac Pro and Macbook Pro (Power Mac G5)
Dell Precision
 SERVERS
A server is a piece of computer hardware or software
(computer program) that provides functionality for other
programs or devices, called "clients". This architecture is
called the client–server model.
Servers can provide various functionalities, often called
"services", such as sharing data or resources among multiple
clients, or performing computation for a client.
A single server can serve multiple clients, and a single
client can use multiple servers. A client process may run on
the same device or may connect over a network to a server
on a different device.

Eg: Application Server, Computing Server, Database Server

CABLES
Coaxial Cable
CABLES
Coaxial cables have a single copper conductor at the center, while a plastic layer provides
insulation between the center conductor and braided metal shield. The metal shield blocks
outside interference from fluorescent lights, motors, and other computers.
Coaxial cabling is highly resistant to signal obstruction, although it can be complex to install. It
can handle greater cable lengths between network devices than twisted pair cables. The two types
of coaxial cables are thick coaxial and thin coaxial.

Fiber Optic Cable

Fiber optic cables possess a center glass core surrounded by multiple layers of protective
materials. They avoid electrical obstruction by transmitting light instead of electronic signals,
making them perfect for environments with large amounts of electrical interference. Fiber optic
cables have become the standard for connecting networks across buildings because of their
resistance to moisture and lighting.

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

Often referred to colloquially as simply ethernet cables, STP cables employ a special type of
copper telephone wiring used for business installations. An external shield functioning as a ground
is added to the standard twisted pair of telephone wires. 
Shielded twisted pair cables can be perfect if you want to set up cables in an area with potential
interference and risks to an unshielded twisted pair cable’s electrical current. Shielded twisted
pair cables can also help to expand the distance between the cables.

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables are broadly used in the telecommunications and
computer industries as ethernet cables and telephone wires. In a UTP cable, conductors forming a
single circuit are twisted around one another to cancel out electromagnetic interference (EMI)
from external sources.
 TYPES OF ETHERNET
 What is an Ethernet Network?
Ethernet network is used to create local area network and connect
multiple computers or other devices such as printers, scanners, and so on. In
a wired network, this is done with the help of fiber optic cables, while in a
wireless network, it is done through wireless network technology. An
Ethernet network uses various topologies such as star, bus, ring, and more.
TYPES:
1) Fast Ethernet: This is quite a high-speed internet, and can transmit or
receive data at about 100 Mbps. This type of network is usually
supported by a twisted pair or CAT5 cable. If a laptop, camera, or any
other device is connected to a network, they operate at 10/100Base
Ethernet and 100Base on the fiber side of the link.
2) Gigabit Ethernet: This type of network transfers data at an even higher
speed of about 1000 Mbps or 1Gbps. Gigabit speed is an upgrade from
Fast Ethernet which is slowly being phased out. In this type of network,
all the four pairs in the twisted pair cable contribute to the data
transfer speed. This network type finds a large application in video
calling systems which use CAT5e or other advanced cables. For
extended networks, the distance of up to 500m, 1000Base SX fiber
cables may be used for multimode, as well as 1000Base LX for single
mode systems.
 TYPES OF ETHERNET
TYPES:

3) 10-Gigabit Ethernet: This is an even more advanced and high speed

network type with a data transfer rate of 10 Gigabit/second. It is
supported by CAT6a or CAT7 twisted pair cables, as well as fiber optic
cables. By using a fiber optic cable, this network area can be extended
up to around 10,000 meters.

4) Switch Ethernet: This type of network requires a switch or hub. Also,

instead of a twisted pair cable, a normal network cable is used in this
case. Network switches are used for data transfer from one device to
the other, without interrupting any other devices in the network.

 10Base2: This is a thin twisted pair coaxial cable.

 10Base5: This is thick twisted pair coaxial cables.
 10Base T: This is a twisted pair cable which offers a speed of around 10 Mbps.
 100BaseTX: This is a twisted pair cable and offer a speed of 100 Mbps.
 100Base FX: Fiber optic protocol which offers a speed of 100 Mbps.
 1000Base SX: Fiber optic protocol which utilizes a wavelength of 850nm for
multimode networks.
 1000Base LX: Fiber optic protocol which utilizes a wavelength of 1310 nm, for
multimode networks and up to 1550nm for singlemode networks.
BASEBAND & BROADBAND
 BASEBAND & BROADBAND
What is a Baseband ?
Baseband refers to a communications channel in which information is
carried in digital form and which uses the transmission medium as a single-
channel device. This means a single channel is used to communicate with
devices on a network, which allows computers to transmit and receive
data on a single cable.
Only one station can transmit at a time, and all stations must transmit
and receive the same types of signals. The communication is bi-directional
meaning the same channel is used to transmit and receive signals. Every
device on a baseband system shares the same channel.
When one node transmits data on a baseband channel, all other nodes
on the network have to wait for the transmission to end before they are
able to transmit data. The only problem with baseband LANs is their
limited capacity over a limited distance which is no more than a couple
miles.
 BASEBAND & BROADBAND
What is a Broadband ?
Broadband transmission is a digital electrical transmission in which
signals are modulated as radiofrequency analog waves that use different
frequency ranges. Unlike baseband, broadband technology does not encode
information as digital pulses.
It generates an analog carrier frequency, which carries multiple digital
signals or multiple channels. Each channel occupies a different frequency
band out of the total bandwidth allocated (frequency-division
multiplexing). Consequently, each channel can contain different
modulation and encoding schemes and operate at different transmission
rates.
Through FDM, multiple independent channels can carry analog or digital
information, depending on the interfaces. This is essentially the
way cable television operates. The cable TV connection can carry at least
25 times as much data as a typical baseband system can carry. Broadband
systems are generally more expensive to install and maintain because of
the additional hardware involved. However, they span much longer
distances than baseband.
OPTICAL FIBER
 OPTICAL FIBER

It is the technology associated with data transmission using light

pulses travelling along with a long fiber which is usually made of
plastic or glass.

Optical fibers are also unaffected by electromagnetic

interference. The fiber optical cable uses the application of total
internal reflection of light. The fibers are designed such that they
facilitate the propagation of light along with the optical fiber
depending on the requirement of power and distance of transmission.

Single-mode fiber is used for long-distance transmission, while

multimode fiber is used for shorter distances. The outer cladding of
these fibers needs better protection than metal wires.
 OPTICAL FIBER
ADVANTAGES :

 Economical and cost-effective

 Thin and non-flammable
 Less power consumption
 Less signal degradation
 Flexible and lightweight
 The data security is excellent
 It won’t be affected by interference
 Network Interface Card (INC)

A network interface card (NIC) is a hardware component without which a

computer cannot be connected over a network. It is a circuit board installed
in a computer that provides a dedicated network connection to the
computer. It is also called network interface controller, network adapter or
LAN adapter.

Purpose
 NIC allows both wired and wireless communications.
 NIC allows communications between computers connected via local area
network (LAN) as well as communications over large-scale network
through Internet Protocol (IP).
 NIC is both a physical layer and a data link layer device, i.e. it provides
the necessary hardware circuitry so that the physical layer processes and
some data link layer processes can run on it.
 Network Interface Card (INC)

 Types of NIC Cards

 Internal Network Cards

In internal networks cards, motherboard has a slot for the network card
where it can be inserted. It requires network cables to provide network
access. Internal network cards are of two types. The first type uses
Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) connection, while the second type
uses Industry Standard Architecture (ISA).
 Network Interface Card (INC)

 Internal Network Cards

In internal networks cards, motherboard has a slot for the network card
where it can be inserted. It requires network cables to provide network
access. Internal network cards are of two types. The first type uses
Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) connection, while the second type
uses Industry Standard Architecture (ISA).
 Network Interface Card (NIC)

 External Network Cards

In desktops and laptops that do not have an internal NIC, external NICs
are used. External network cards are of two types: Wireless and USB based.
Wireless network card needs to be inserted into the motherboard, however
no network cable is required to connect to the network. They are useful
while traveling or accessing a wireless signal.

MORE INFO
UNIT 3
 LAN, MAN & WAN
LAN stands for local area network. It is a group of network
devices that allow communication between various
connected devices. Private ownership has control over the
local area network rather than the public. It covers the
smaller area such as colleges, schools, hospitals, and so on. 

MAN stands for metropolitan area network. It covers the

larger area than LAN such as small towns, cities, etc. MAN
connects two or more computers that reside within the
same or completely different cities. MAN is expensive and
should or might not be owned by one organization. 

WAN stands for wide area network. It covers a large area

than LAN as well as a MAN such as country/continent etc.
WAN is expensive and should or might not be owned by one
organization. PSTN or satellite medium is used for wide area
networks. 
LAN, MAN & WAN
LAN, MAN & WAN
Hub, Switches, Routers & Gateways
 Hub, Switches, Routers & Gateways
Hub
 Hub is a very simple network connecting device. In Star/hierarchical topology,
a Repeater is called Hub. It is also known as a Multiport Repeater Device.
 A Hub is a layer-1 device and operates only in the physical network of the
OSI Model. Since it works in the physical layer, it mainly deals with the data
in the form of bits or electrical signals. A Hub is mainly used to create a
network and connect devices on the same network only.
 A Hub is not an intelligent device, it forwards the incoming messages to other
devices without checking for any errors or processing it. It does not maintain
any address table for connected devices. It only knows that a device is
connected to one of its ports.
 When a data packet arrives at one of the ports of a Hub, it simply copies the
data to every port. In other words, a hub broadcasts the incoming data
packets in the network. Due to this, there are various security issues in the
hub. Broadcasting also leads to unnecessary data traffic on the channel.
 A Hub uses a half-duplex mode of communication. It shares the bandwidth of
its channel with the connecting devices. It has only one collision domain, so
there are more chances of collision and traffic on the channel. A hub is
connected in limited network size. If the network size is increased, the speed
of the network will slow down. Also, a hub can only connect the devices in
the same network with the same data rates and format only.
 Hub
2 Types:
 Active Hub: An Active hub is also known as Concentrator. It requires
a power supply and can work as a repeater. Thus, it can analyze the
data packets and can amplify the transmission signals, if needed.
 Passive Hub: A passive hub does not need any power supply to
operate. It only provides communication between the networking
devices and does not amplify the transmission signals. In other
words, it just forwards the data as it is.

ADVANTAGES :
 It is simple to implement.
 The implementation cost is low.
 It does not require any special system administration configuration.
We can just plug and play it.
 Hub
DISADVANTAGES :
 It can connect devices of the same network only.
 It uses a half-duplex mode of communication.
 It is less secure, as it broadcasts the data packets.
 It can be used in a limited network size only.
 Broadcasting induces unnecessary traffic on the channel.
 Bridge
 A bridge is a layer-2 network connecting device, i.e., it works on the
physical and data-link layer of the OSI model. It interprets data in the
form of data frames. In the physical layer, the bridge acts as a Repeater
which regenerates the weak signals, while in the data-link layer, it checks
the MAC(Media Access Control) address of the data frames for its
transmission.
 A bridge connects the devices which are present in the same network. It is
mainly used to segment a network to allow a large network size. It has two
types of port - incoming and outgoing. It uses the incoming port to receive
the data frames and outgoing port to send the data frames to other devices.
It has two collision domains, so there is still a chance of collision and traffic
in the data transmission channel.
 A Bridge has filtering capacity. It means that it can discard the faulty data
frames and will allow only the errorless data frames in the network. Also, it
can check the destination MAC address of a frame and decides the port from
which the frame should be sent out. For this, it maintains a table containing
the physical(MAC) addresses of all the devices in the network. Whenever a
data frame arrives at the incoming port of the bridge, it first checks the
data frame for any kind of errors. If the frame is errorless, it directs the
data frame to the specified MAC address(taking instance from the address
table) using its outgoing port. It does not change the physical(MAC Address)
of the frames during transmission. In other words, a Bridge is a Repeater
with filtering capability.
 Bridge
2 Types:
 Transparent Bridge: Transparent bridge simply works as a
transmission medium between two devices. They are actually
transparent(they are present but are not functionally visible to the
devices) to the networking devices.
 Routing Bridge: Routing bridges have their unique identity, they
can be easily identified by the network devices. The source station
or the sender can send the data packets through specific
bridges(using the unique identity of bridges).
ADVANTAGES :
 It is not so complex to implement.
 The implementation cost is medium.
 It does not require any special system administration configuration.
We can just plug and play it.
 Improves security by limiting the scope of data frames.
 It has the filtering capability.
 It can be used in a large network.
 Bridge
DISADVANTAGES :
 It can connect devices of the same network only.
 There is a delay in forwarding the frames due to error checking.
 There is a need to maintain an Address table.
 Switch
 A switch is a layer-2 network connecting device, i.e., it works on the physical
and data-link layer of the OSI model. It interprets data in the form of data
frames. A switch acts as a multiport bridge in the network. It provides the bridging
functionality with greater efficiency.
 A switch maintains a Switch table which has the MAC addresses of all the devices
connected to it. It is preferred more over the hub, as it reduces any kind of
unnecessary traffic in the transmission channel. A switch can connect the devices
only in the same network. It uses the full-duplex mode of communication and saves
bandwidth. The switch table keeps on updating every few seconds for better
processing.
 A Switch is an intelligent device with filtering capabilities. It can discard the faulty
data frames and will allow only the errorless data frames in the network. Also, it
will forward the data frames to the specific node based on the MAC address(taken
from the Switch table). A Switch has multiple collision domains, so it has least or
no collisions in the transmission channel. In fact, every port of switch has a
separate collision domain.
 When a data frame arrives at the Switch, it first checks for any kind of error in the
data frame. If the frame is error-free, it will search the MAC address of the
destination in the Switch table. If the address is available in the switch table, it
will forward the data frame to that specific node, else switch will register the MAC
address in the switch table. If the destination address is not specified, it will
broadcast the data frame to each node in the network.
 A Switch can have 8/6/24/48 ports. The data transmission speed is slow in a
switch(around 10-100 Mbps). Also, it has only one broadcasting domain.
 Switch
4 Types:
 Store and Forward Switch: It is the most widely and commonly used switch. It does
not forward the data frames unless the frames are errorless and completely received
in the switch buffer. It is reliable in nature.
 Cut-through Switch: Cut-through switches have no error checking. Also, it starts
sending the data frame to the destination node when it starts receiving it. It is
unreliable in nature.
 Fragment-Free Switch: It is a combination of store and forward, and cut-through
switch. It checks only the starting 64 bytes(header information) of the data frame
before transmitting the frame.
 Adaptive Switch: It is the most advanced kind of switch which automatically chooses
any of the above three switches as per the need.
ADVANTAGES :
 The implementation cost is medium.
 It does not require any special system administration configuration. We can just plug
and play it.
 Improves security by limiting the scope of data frames.
 It has the filtering capability.
 It can be used in a large network.
 It uses full-duplex mode of communication
 It has multiple collision domains, so there are least or no collisions in the channel.
 Switch
DISADVANTAGES :
 It can connect devices of the same network only.
 There is a delay in forwarding the frames due to error checking.
 There is a need to maintain a Switch table.
 Router
 A Router is a layer-3 network connecting device, i.e., it works on the
physical, data-link and network layer of the OSI model. It interprets data in
the form of data packets. It is mainly an internetworking device, which can
connect devices of different networks(implementing the same architecture and
protocols). In other words, it can connect two physically and logically different
network devices with each other. A Router is used to connect the networks or
it routes traffic between the networks. In other words, a Router is the
Gateway of a network.
 Since, connecting two devices of different networks, the connecting device
should implement an Internet Protocol(IP) address. So, the Router has a
physical and logical(Internet Protocol) address for each of its interfaces. It
routes or forwards the data packets from one network to another based on
their IP addresses. It changes the physical address of the data packet(both
source and destination) when it forwards the data packets.
 A router maintains a routing table using the routing algorithms. When a data
packet is received at the router, it first checks the IP address. If the IP address
is the same as the network's IP address, it receives the data packet, else it
forwards the data packet to the destination IP address using the routing table.
 A router does not perform addressing. It can have 2/4/8 ports for connecting
the devices. It can control both the collision domain(inside the network) and
the broadcast domain(outside the network). It has a fast data transmission
speed(up to 1 Gbps). A Router can be a Wireless Router, Core Routers, Edge
Routers, Virtual Routers, etc.
 Router
2 Types:
 Static Routing: In Static Routing, the path for the data packets is
manually set. It is generally used for small networks.
 Dynamic Routing: In Dynamic Routing, various routing algorithms
are used to find the best and shortest path for the data packets.

ADVANTAGES :
 It can connect devices and provides routing facilities over different
networks implementing the same protocol and structure.
 Improves security by limiting the scope of data packets.
 It has the filtering capability.
 It can be used in a large network.
 It uses full-duplex mode of communication
 It has control over both the collision and broadcast domain.
 Router
DISADVANTAGES :
 It is very complex to implement.
 The implementation cost is quite high.
 There is a need to maintain a Routing table.
 There is a delay in forwarding the packets due to error checking.
 It requires a special system administration configuration.

Simplified
 COLLISION DOMAIN

In the picture above you can see a network of seven computers, two hubs, a
bridge, a switch, and a router. The collision domains created by these devices
are marked in red. Remember, all devices connected to the hub are in the
same collision domain. Each port on a bridge, a switch or router is in a
seperate collision domain. That is why there are seven collision domains in
the network pictured above.
 CELL RELAY
Cell relay refers to a method of statistically multiplexing
small fixed-length packets, called "cells", to transport data
between computers or kinds of network equipment. It is a
reliable, connection-oriented packet switched data
communications protocol.
Transmission Rate:
Cell relay transmission rates usually are between 56
kbit/s and several gigabits per second. ATM(Asynchronous
Transfer Mode), a particularly popular form of cell relay, is
most commonly used for home DSL connections, which often
runs between 128 kbit/s and 1.544 Mbit/s, and for high-speed
backbone connections.
How it Works:
Cell relay systems break variable-length user packets into
groups of fixed-length cells, that add addressing and
verification information. Cell length is fixed in networking
hardware, based on time delay and user packet-length
considerations. One user data message may be segmented
over many cells.
 FRAME RELAY
Frame Relay is a standardized wide area network (WAN)
technology that specifies the network and data link layers of
digital telecommunications channels using a packet
switching methodology.

Frame Relay aimed to provide a telecommunication service

for cost-efficient data transmission for intermittent traffic
between local area networks (LANs) and between end-points
in a wide area network (WAN). Frame Relay puts data in
variable-size units called "frames" and leaves any necessary
error-correction (such as retransmission of data) up to the
end-points. This speeds up overall data transmission. For
most services, the network provides a permanent virtual
circuit (PVC), which means that the customer sees a
continuous, dedicated connection without having to pay for
a full-time leased line, while the service-provider figures
out the route each frame travels to its destination and can
charge based on usage.
DLCI (Data Link
Connection Identifier)
 FRAME RELAY
Frame relay is a protocol that defines how frames are routed
through a fast-packet network based on the address field in the
frame.
Frame relay takes advantage of the reliability of data
communications networks to minimize the error checking done by
the network nodes. This provides a packet-switching protocol similar
to, but much faster than, X.25. The high speed that can be obtained
through frame-relay networks makes it well suited for wide area
network (WAN) connectivity. Frame relay is commonly used to
connect two or more LAN bridges over large distances.

What does Frame Relay do?

Frame Relay sends information in packets called frames through
a shared Frame Relay network. Each frame contains all the
information necessary to route it to the correct destination. So in
effect, each endpoint can communicate with many destinations over
one access link to the network. And instead of being allocated a
fixed amount of bandwidth, Frame Relay services offer a CIR
(Committed Information Rate) at which data is transmitted. But if
traffic and your service agreement allow, data can burst above your
committed rate.
ISDN(Integrated Services Digital Network)

It is a circuit-switched telephone network system that transmits both data and voice over a
digital line. You can also think of it as a set of communication standards to transmit data,
voice, and signaling.
These digital lines could be copper lines. It was designed to move outdated landline
technology to digital.

 Principle of ISDN:

The ISDN works based on the standards defined by ITU-T (formerly CCITT). The
Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) coordinates standards for
telecommunications on behalf of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and is
based in Geneva, Switzerland. The various principles of ISDN as per ITU-T
recommendation are:
 To support switched and non-switched applications
 To support voice and non-voice applications
 Reliance on 64-kbps connections
 Intelligence in the network
 Layered protocol architecture
 Variety of configurations
B-ISDN(Broadband)

It is a virtual circuit-switched network that can use high-speed packet switching services.
The B-ISDN will use a flexible multiplexing format called ATM (asynchronous transfer
mode).

B-ISDN services are classified into interactive and distribution services. Interactive
services contain the bidirectional flow of user information between two subscribers or
between a subscriber and a service provider.
 Interactive services
The interactive services are further divided into three sub-categories which are as
follows−
 Conversational
Conversational service involves the real-time exchange of information such as sound,
video, data or entire documents. Examples include video-telephony, video-conference, and
high-speed data transfer. Video-telephony is like the normal video telephony service but
also has video capture, transmission and display capabilities. Video-conference supports
voice and video communication between two conference rooms or between several
individuals.
 Messaging
Messaging service involves the non-real-time exchange of information between
subscribers in a store-and-forward fashion.
B-ISDN(Broadband)

 Retrieval
Retrieval services provide subscribers with retrieval access to centrally-stored
public information. Examples include broadband videotext (retrieval of video
images/sequences with sound, text and graphics), video retrieval (subscriber create
to video libraries of movies) and return of high-resolution pictures and records from
multiple archives and data centers.
 Distribution Services
Distribution services contain the unidirectional flow of user information from a
service provider to a subscriber.
Distribution services are divided into two sub-categories, which are as follows:
 Distribution services without user presentation control involve the central
broadcast of information to many subscribers, where subscribers have no control
over data display. Examples include the broadcast of TV programs, electronic
newspapers, and electronic publishing.
 Distribution services with user presentation control are the same as the previous
category. The information is offered as cyclically repeated frames, thereby
enabling the subscribers to control the start and the order of the frames
presentation. Examples include electronic newspaper and tele-advertising.
UNIT 4
OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection)
 OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that
describes how information from a software application in one computer
moves through a physical medium to the software application in another
computer.
 OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network
function.
 OSI model was developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an architectural
model for the inter-computer communications.
 OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks.
Each layer is assigned a particular task.
 Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be
performed independently.
OSI Model
 OSI Model

The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and
lower layers.
 The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the
application related issues, and they are implemented only in the
software. The application layer is closest to the end user. Both
the end user and the application layer interact with the software
applications. An upper layer refers to the layer just above
another layer.
 The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport
issues. The data link layer and the physical layer are
implemented in hardware and software. The physical layer is
the lowest layer of the OSI model and is closest to the physical
medium. The physical layer is mainly responsible for placing
the information on the physical medium.
OSI Model
 1. Physical Layer (Layer 1) :
 The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the
individual bits from one node to another node.
 It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
 It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
 It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface
specifications.
Functions of a Physical layer:
 Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can
be connected physically.
 Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is
simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex mode between the two devices on
the network.
 Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
 Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the
information.
* Hub, Repeater, Modem, Cables are Physical Layer devices. 
** Network Layer, Data Link Layer, and Physical Layer are also known as Lower
Layers or Hardware Layers. 
Physical Layer (Layer 1) :
2. Data Link Layer (Layer 2) :
 This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.
 It defines the format of the data on the network.
 It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more
devices.
 It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that
resides on a local network.
It contains two sub-layers:
 Logical Link Control Layer(LLC)
→ It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer
of the receiver that is receiving.
→ It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the
header.
→ It also provides flow control.
 Media Access Control Layer(MAC)
→ A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link
Control layer and the network's physical layer.
→ It is used for transferring the packets over the network.
2. Data Link Layer (Layer 2) :
Functions of the Data-link layer
 Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into
packets known as Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to
the frame. The header which is added to the frame contains the hardware
destination and source address.
 Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that
contains a destination address. The frame is transmitted to the destination
address mentioned in the header.
 Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer.
It is the technique through which the constant data rate is maintained on
both the sides so that no data get corrupted. It ensures that the transmitting
station such as a server with higher processing speed does not exceed the
receiving station, with lower processing speed.
 Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC
(Cyclic Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer
which is added to the message frame before it is sent to the physical layer. If
any error seems to occur, then the receiver sends the acknowledgment for
the retransmission of the corrupted frames.
 Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same
communication channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to
determine which device has control over the link at a given time.
Data Link Layer (Layer 2)

* Packet in Data Link layer is referred to as Frame.

** Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and
device drivers of host machines.
*** Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.
3. Network Layer (Layer 3) :

 It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of

devices on the network.
 It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination
based on the network conditions, the priority of service, and other
factors.
 The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the
packets.
 Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used
to provide the routing services within an internetwork.
 The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network
layer protocols. Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.
3. Network Layer (Layer 3) :

Functions of Network Layer:

 Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the
network layer. It provides a logical connection between different
devices.
 Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address
to the header of the frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on
the internet.
 Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it
determines the best optimal path out of the multiple paths from source
to the destination.
 Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper
layer and converts them into packets. This process is known as
Packetizing. It is achieved by internet protocol (IP).

*Segment in Network layer is referred to as Packet.

** Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers.
3. Network Layer (Layer 3) :
4. Transport Layer (Layer 4) : It controls the reliability of communication.
 The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the order in which
they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
 The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.
 It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units known as
segments.
 This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point connection
between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.

The two protocols used in this layer are:

 Transmission Control Protocol
→ It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over the internet.
→ It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.
→ When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP protocol divides the data
into smaller units known as segments. Each segment travels over the internet using
multiple routes, and they arrive in different orders at the destination. The
transmission control protocol reorders the packets in the correct order at the
receiving end.
 User Datagram Protocol
→ User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.
→ It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not send any
acknowledgment when the packet is received, the sender does not wait for any
acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a protocol unreliable.
4. Transport Layer (Layer 4) :
Functions of Transport Layer:
• Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs simultaneously due to
this reason, the transmission of data from source to the destination not only from one
computer to another computer but also from one process to another process. The
transport layer adds the header that contains the address known as a service-point
address or port address. The responsibility of the network layer is to transmit the data
from one computer to another computer and the responsibility of the transport layer is
to transmit the message to the correct process.
• Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the message from
the upper layer, it divides the message into multiple segments, and each segment is
assigned with a sequence number that uniquely identifies each segment. When the
message has arrived at the destination, then the transport layer reassembles the
message based on their sequence numbers.
• Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-oriented
service and connectionless service. A connectionless service treats each segment as
an individual packet, and they all travel in different routes to reach the destination. A
connection-oriented service makes a connection with the transport layer at the
destination machine before delivering the packets. In connection-oriented service, all
the packets travel in the single route.
• Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is
performed end-to-end rather than across a single link.
• Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error control
is performed end-to-end rather than across the single link. The sender transport layer
ensures that message reach at the destination without any error.
 Transport Layer (Layer 4) :

* Data in the Transport Layer is called as Segments. 

** Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of the OS
and communicates with the Application Layer by making system calls. 
Transport Layer is called as Heart of OSI model. 
5. Session Layer (Layer 5) :
 The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the
interaction between communicating devices.

Functions of Session layer:

 Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a
dialog between two processes or we can say that it allows the
communication between two processes which can be either half-duplex or
full-duplex.
 Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting
the data in a sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of the
transmission of data, then the transmission will take place again from the
checkpoint. This process is known as Synchronization and recovery.

*All the below 3 layers(including Session Layer) are integrated as a single

layer in the TCP/IP model as “Application Layer”. 
**Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network application itself.
These are also known as Upper Layers or Software Layers. 
Session Layer (Layer 5) :
6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6) :
 A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics
of the information exchanged between the two systems.
 It acts as a data translator for a network.
 This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from
one presentation format to another format.
 The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax/translation layer.
 Functions of Presentation layer:
 Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in
the form of character strings, numbers and so on. Different computers
use different encoding methods, the presentation layer handles the
interoperability between the different encoding methods. It converts the
data from sender-dependent format into a common format and changes
the common format into receiver-dependent format at the receiving end.
 Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a
process of converting the sender-transmitted information into another
form and sends the resulting message over the network.
 Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data,
i.e., it reduces the number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is
very important in multimedia such as text, audio, video.
Presentation Layer (Layer 6) :
7. Application Layer (Layer 7) :
 An application layer serves as a window for users and
application processes to access network service.
 It handles issues such as network transparency, resource
allocation, etc.
 An application layer is not an application, but it performs the
application layer functions.
 This layer provides the network services to the end-users.
 Functions of Application layer:
 File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application
layer allows a user to access the files in a remote computer, to
retrieve the files from a computer and to manage the files in a
remote computer.
 Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for
email forwarding and storage.
 Directory services: An application provides the distributed
database sources and is used to provide that global information
about various objects.
 Application Layer (Layer 7) :

Ex: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc. 

**Application Layer is also called Desktop Layer.