Bvoc Maths: Logic

Bvoc Maths
Logic
Foundation-logic
Preposition
• A proposition is a declarative sentence (that is, a sentence that declares
a fact) that is either true or false, but not both.
• All the following declarative sentences are propositions.

• 1. Washington, D.C., is the capital of the United States of America.
• 2. Toronto is the capital of Canada.
• 3. 1 + 1 = 2.
• 4. 2 + 2 = 3.
• Propositions 1 and 3 are true, whereas 2 and 4 are false.
• EXAMPLE 2
Consider the following sentences.
1. What time is it?
2. Read this carefully.
3. x + 1 = 2.
4. x + y = z.
Sentences 1 and 2 are not propositions because they are not declarative
sentences. Sentences 3 and 4 are not propositions because they are
neither true nor false. Note that each of sentences 3 and 4 can be
turned into a proposition if we assign values to the variables
• We use letters to denote propositional variables (or statement
variables)
• Conventional letters used for propositional variables are p, q, r, s, . . . .
The truth value of a proposition is true, denoted by T, if it is a true

proposition, and the truth value of a proposition is false, denoted by F,
if it is a false proposition.
• Compound propositions
combining one or more propositions.
Let p be a proposition. The negation of p, denoted by ¬p (also denoted

by p)- “It is not the case that p.”
Find the negation of the proposition “Vandana’s smartphone has at
least 32GB of memory”
• Solution: The negation is “It is not the case that Vandana’s
smartphone has at least 32GB of memory.” This negation can also be
expressed as “Vandana’s smartphone does not have at least 32GB of
memory” or even more simply as “Vandana’s smartphone has less
than 32GB of memory.”
• Let p and q be propositions. The conjunction of p and q, denoted by
p ∧ q, is the proposition “p and q.” The conjunction p ∧ q is true when
both p and q are true and is false otherwise.
• Let p and q be propositions. The disjunction of p and q, denoted by
p ∨ q, is the proposition “p or q.” The disjunction p ∨ q is false when
both p and q are false and is true otherwise.
• Let p and q be propositions. The exclusive or of p and q, denoted
• p ⊕ q, is the proposition that is true when exactly one of p and q is
true and is false otherwise.
• Let p and q be propositions. The conditional statement p → q is the
proposition “if p, then q.” The conditional statement p → q is false
when p is true and q is false, and true otherwise. In the conditional
statement p → q, p is called the hypothesis (or antecedent or
premise) and q is called the conclusion (or consequence)
• The statement p → q is called a conditional statement because p → q

asserts that q is true on the condition that p holds. A conditional
statement is also called an implication
DEFINITION 5
Let p and q be propositions. The conditional statement
p → q is the proposition “if p, then q.” The conditional
statement p → q is false when p is true and q is false,
and true otherwise. In the conditional statement p → q,
p is called the hypothesis (or antecedent or premise)
and q is called the conclusion (or consequence)
DEFINITION 6
Let p and q be propositions. The biconditional
statement p ↔ q is the proposition “p if and only if
q.” The biconditional statement p ↔ q is true when
p and q have the same truth values, and is false
otherwise. Biconditional statements are also called
bi-implications.
EXAMPLE 10 Let p be the statement “You can take the flight,” and let q be the statement
“You buy a ticket.” Then p ↔ q is the statement “You can take the flight if and only if you buy
a ticket.”
This statement is true if p and q are either both true or both false, that is, if you buy a ticket and
can take the flight or if you do not buy a ticket and you cannot take the flight. It is false when p
and q have opposite truth values, that is, when you do not buy a ticket, but you can take the
flight (such as when you get a free trip) and when you buy a ticket but you cannot take the
flight (such as when the airline bumps you).
Propositional Equivalences
• DEFINITION 1 .
A compound proposition that is always true, no matter what the truth
values of the propositional variables that occur in it, is called a
tautology.
A compound proposition that is always false is called a contradiction.
A compound proposition that is neither a tautology nor a contradiction

is called a contingency.
• Consider the truth tables of p ∨ ¬p and p ∧ ¬p, Because p ∨ ¬p is
always true, it is a tautology.
• DEFINITION 2
The compound propositions p and q are called logically equivalent if
p ↔ q is a tautology. The notation p ≡ q denotes that p and q are
logically equivalent.
Predicates and Quantifiers
• Predicates Statements involving variables, such as “x > 3,” “x = y + 3,”
• The statement “x is greater than 3” has two parts. The first part, the variable
x, is the subject of the statement. The second part—the predicate, “is
greater than 3”—refers to a property that the subject of the statement can
have. We can denote the statement “x is greater than 3” by P (x), where P
denotes the predicate “is greater than 3” and x is the variable.
• Let P (x) denote the statement “x > 3.” What are the truth values of P (4) and
P (2)? Solution: We obtain the statement P (4) by setting x = 4 in the
statement “x > 3.” Hence, P (4), which is the statement “4 > 3,” is true.
However, P (2), which is the statement “2 > 3,” is false.
• Let Q(x, y) denote the statement “x = y + 3.” What are the truth values
of the propositions Q(1, 2) and Q(3, 0)?
Solution: To obtain Q(1, 2), set x = 1 and y = 2 in the statement Q(x, y).
Hence, Q(1, 2) is the statement “1 = 2 + 3,” which is false. The
statement Q(3, 0) is the proposition “3 = 0 + 3,” which is true
• Quantifiers
When the variables in a propositional function are assigned values, the
resulting statement becomes a proposition with a certain truth value.
However, there is another important way, called quantification, to create a
proposition from a propositional function. Quantification expresses the
extent to which a predicate is true over a range of elements.
In English, the words all, some, many, none, and few are used in
quantifications. We will focus on two types of quantification here: universal
quantification, which tells us that a predicate is true for every element
under consideration, and existential quantification, which tells us that there
is one or more element under consideration for which the predicate is true.
• DEFINITION 1
The universal quantification of P (x) is the statement “P (x) for all
values of x in the domain.” The notation ∀xP (x) denotes the universal
quantification of P (x). Here ∀ is called the universal quantifier. We read
∀xP (x) as “for all xP (x)” or “for every xP (x).” An element for which
P (x) is false is called a counter example of ∀xP (x)
• DEFINITION 2
The existential quantification of P (x) is the proposition “There exists an
element x in the domain such that P (x).” We use the notation ∃xP (x)
for the existential quantification of P (x). Here ∃ is called the existential
quantifier

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• All the following declarative sentences are propositions.

The truth value of a proposition is true, denoted by T, if it is a true

Let p be a proposition. The negation of p, denoted by ¬p (also denoted

• The statement p → q is called a conditional statement because p → q

A compound proposition that is neither a tautology nor a contradiction

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