Lesson 4

DATA
MANAGEMENT
Lesson Coverage
◦ Basic Statistical Concepts
◦ Measures of Central Tendency
◦ Measures of Dispersion
◦ Measures of Relative Position
◦ Probability and the Normal Distribution
◦ Correlation and Linear Regression
◦ Chi-square
PROBABILITY
AND THE NORMAL
DISTRIBUTION
Lesson Coverage 5
Probability
◦Probability is simply how likely
something is to happen.
Terms
◦ Experiment is a process by which an outcome is obtained.
Ex. Rolling a die.
◦ Sample space is the set (S) of all possible outcomes of an
experiment.
Ex. The sample space for a die roll is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
◦ A sample point is an element of a sample space. Element
is the object within the set
Terms
◦Event is a subset (E) of the sample space.
◦ Simple event - an event with one outcome.
◦ Compound event - an event consists of two or more
outcomes.
Ex. Let E1 = An even number is rolled.
E2 = A number less than three is rolled.
Types of events
◦ Two events are mutually exclusive if they have no
sample points in common.
◦ Two events are independent when the occurrence
of one does not affect the probability of the
occurrence of the other.
Probability of an Event
◦ If an experiment’s outcomes are equally likely to occur,
then the probability of an event (E) is the number of
outcomes in (E) divided by the number of outcomes in
the sample space.
 𝒏( 𝑬 )
𝑷 ( 𝑬 )=
𝒏( 𝑺 )

Example: Probability of flipping a coin.

What’s the probability of the coin landing on Heads?

𝟏
𝑷 (𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅)¿ 𝟐 ¿𝟎 .𝟓𝒐𝒓 𝟓𝟎%
 𝒏( 𝑬 )
𝑷 ( 𝑬 )=
𝒏( 𝑺 )

Example: Probability of rolling a die.

What’s the probability of rolling a One?

𝟏
𝑷 (𝟏)=
𝟔
 𝒏( 𝑬 )
𝑷 ( 𝑬 )=
𝒏( 𝑺 )

Example: Probability of rolling a die.

What’s the probability of rolling a One or a Six?

𝟐 𝟏
𝑷 (𝟏 𝒐𝒓 𝟔)= ¿
𝟔 𝟑
 𝒏( 𝑬 )
𝑷 ( 𝑬 )=
𝒏( 𝑺 )

Example: Probability of drawing cards.

Suppose we draw a card from a deck of playing cards.
What is the probability that we draw a Spade?
𝟏𝟑𝟏
𝑷 ( 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒅𝒆 )= ¿
𝟓𝟐𝟒
Remember!
The probability of event  is often written as .
The probability of an event can only be between 0 and
1 and can also be written as a percentage.
If P(A) equals zero, event A will almost definitely not
occur.
If P(A) is close to zero, there is only a small chance that
event A will occur.
If P(A) is close to one, there is a strong chance that event
A will occur.
If P(A) equals one, event A will almost definitely occur.
The sum of probabilities of all possible events equals 1.
The Fundamental Counting Rule
In a sequence of n events in which the first one has
possibilities and the second event has and the third has ,
and so forth, the total number of possibilities of the
sequence will be:

Note: In this case and means to multiply.

The Fundamental Counting Rule
𝑘1 ⋅𝑘2 ⋅𝑘3 ⋯ 𝑘𝑛
Example: Tossing a coin and rolling a die
1 Outcomes
2

3
H, 1 T, 1 2 6
H H, 2 T, 2

= 12
4 H, 3 T, 3
5 H, 4 T, 4
6 H, 5 T, 5
1
T
H, 6 T, 6
2

4
5
6
The Fundamental Counting Rule
Example: A paint manufacturer wishes to
manufacture several different paints. The categories
include
Color red, blue, white, black, green, brown, yellow
Type latex, oil
Texture flat, semi-gloss, high gloss
Use outdoor, indoor
How many different kinds of paint can be made
if you can select one color, one type, one
texture, and one use?
The Fundamental Counting Rule
Color red, blue, white, black, green, brown, yellow 7
Type latex, oil 2
Texture flat, semi-gloss, high gloss 3
Use outdoor, indoor 2

7 × 2 × 3 × 2 = 84
Color Type Texture Use
Factorial Notation

For any number

Note:
𝒏!=𝒏 ⋅ ( 𝒏−𝟏 ) ⋅ ( 𝒏− 𝟐 ) ⋅ …⋅ 𝟏
Example:

Note: To use the formulas in the permutation and

combination rules, a special definition of 0! is
needed. 0! = 1.
The Permutation Rule
◦ The arrangement of n objects in a specific order
using r objects at a time is called a permutation of
n objects taking r objects at a time. It is written as
and the formula is
The Permutation Rule 𝒏!
𝒏𝑷𝒓=
(𝒏− 𝒓 )!
Example: Business Location.
Suppose a business owner has a choice of 5 locations in which to
establish her business. She decides to rank each location according
to certain criteria, such as price of the store and parking facilities.
How many different ways can she rank the 5 locations?
𝟓! 𝟓⋅𝟒⋅𝟑⋅𝟐⋅𝟏
𝟓 𝑷 𝟓=
(𝟓− 𝟓)!
¿
𝟏 ¿ 𝟏𝟐𝟎
0! = 1
The Permutation Rule 𝒏!
𝒏𝑷𝒓=
(𝒏− 𝒓 )!
Example: Television Ads.
The advertising director for a television show has 7 ads to use on
the program. If she selects 1 of them for the opening of the show, 1
for the middle of the show, and 1 for the ending of the show, how
many possible ways can this be accomplished?
𝟕! 𝟕⋅𝟔⋅𝟓⋅𝟒!
𝟕 𝑷 𝟑=
(𝟕− 𝟑)!
¿
𝟒! ¿ 𝟐𝟏𝟎
 The Combination Rule
◦ A combination is a selection of all or part of a set of
objects, without regard to the order in which they were
selected.
◦ The number of combinations of n objects taken r at a
time is denoted by nCr..
Order doesn’t matter
where:
and repetition is
allowed. n is the total number of object.
r is the number of objects to be taken.
n Cr
The Combination Rule Cr
n

Example: How many different ways can you select 2 letters from the
set of letters: X, Y, and Z?
𝟑! 𝟑⋅𝟐⋅𝟏 𝟑
3C2 ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿𝟑
𝟏 ! 𝟐 ! 𝟏⋅𝟐⋅𝟏 𝟏

Example: Given a club with 10 members, in how many ways can a

committee of 3 be selected?
𝟏𝟎 ! 𝟏𝟎⋅𝟗⋅𝟖⋅𝟕! 𝟕𝟐𝟎
10C3 ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿𝟏𝟐𝟎
𝟕 ! 𝟑 ! 𝟕!⋅𝟑⋅𝟐⋅𝟏 𝟔
The Combination Rule Cr
n

Example: A store has 18 different fruit juices and 16 different

carbonated drinks in the cooler. How many possible
combinations if one should buy one from each drink?

𝟏𝟖! 𝟏𝟖⋅𝟏𝟕⋅𝟏𝟔! 𝟑 𝟎𝟔
18C16 ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿𝟏𝟓𝟑
𝟐!𝟏𝟔! 𝟐!⋅𝟏𝟔! 𝟐
Normal Probability Distributions
◦ A function which assigns a number to each element
of the sample space is called random variable.
◦ There are two types: Discrete and Continuous.

Variable

Numeric
Qualitative Quantitative 1, 2, 3, 4, …
Descriptive
tall, short, good, bad 5 kids, 96
5.2 kg, 7.9
workers, 3 Discrete Continuous inches, 2.7 miles
laptops
Determine if it is discrete or
continuous.
◦ The number of students in a certain section
D C
of a statistics is a discrete random variable.
◦ The height of students in a statistics class D C
represents a continuous random variable.
◦ The price of the face shields and masks. D C
◦ The temperature of a person. D C
◦ The distance from CTU Carmen to Cebu
City. D C
 Normal Distribution
The graph of the normal distribution
depends on two factors - the mean
and the standard deviation.
Population
Mean Standard Deviation

“myu” “sigma”
Normal Distribution

All normal distributions look like a symmetric, bell-shaped

Normal Distribution

smaller bigger
standard standard
deviation deviation

All normal distributions look like a symmetric, bell-shaped

Normal Distribution Exactly half of the values are to the left
PROPERTIES
of the center and exactly half the values
The graph is symmetric about are to the right of the center.
a vertical line through the
mean of the distribution. Areas under the curve that are
symmetric about the mean are
The mean, median, and equal.
mode are equal and are It is continuous; i.e.,
at the center of the there are no gaps.
distribution. 50 50
The total area
% % under the curve is
1 or 100%.
Normal Distribution

2.35% 13.5% 34% 34% 13.5% 2.35%

𝝁 −𝟑𝝈 𝝁 −𝟐𝝈 𝝁−𝝈 𝝁 𝝁+ 𝝈 𝝁+𝟐𝝈 𝝁+𝟑𝝈

68% of the data
95% of the data
99.7% of the data
Standard Normal Distribution
The standard normal This is the standard
distribution is a normal normal distribution
distribution of standardized where mean is 0 and
values called z-scores. standard deviation is 1.

−𝟑 −𝟐 −𝟏 0 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
Z-Score
• A z-score is measured in units
of the standard deviation.
• The z-value or z-score is
actually the number of standard
deviations that a particular X
value is away from the mean.
• Here is the formula in
computing z-score.
Example: The data set has a mean of 75 and standard
deviation of 40. Find the z-score when the
score is 85?

45 −𝟓 35 75 115 155 195

−𝟑−𝟐 −𝟏 0 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
Example: Raul has taken two tests in his chemistry class. He scored 72 on the
first test, for which the mean of all the scores was 65 and the standard
deviation was 8. He received a 60 on a second test, for which the mean
of all scores was 45 and the standard deviation was 12. In comparison
to the other students, did Raul do better on the first test or the second
test?
(𝑥 − 𝜇) ( 𝑥 −𝜇)
𝑍 72 = 𝑍 60 =
𝜎 𝜎
−𝟑 2 −𝟏 0 1 2 3

−𝟑−𝟐 −𝟏 0 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
Raul scored better on the second test.
Finding Areas Under the Standard Normal
Distribution Curve
1. To the left of any z value:
Look up the z value in the table and use the area given.

or

0 +𝑧 −𝑧 0
Finding Areas Under the Standard Normal
Distribution Curve
2. To the right of any z value:
Look up the z value and subtract from 1.

or

−𝑧 0 0 +𝑧
Finding Areas Under the Standard Normal
Distribution Curve
3. Between any two z values:
Look up both z value and subtract the corresponding areas.

or

−𝑧 1 +𝑧2 +𝑧1 +𝑧2

0 0
https://bit.ly/36VFDwi
The Standard Distribution Table gives the area under the
curve to the left of any z-value given in two decimal places.
Example: Find the area to the left of z-value of 1.39

0.917
0.917 or 91.77%
It 7
7

means that there are

−𝟑 2 −𝟏 0 1 2 3

z 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 … 0.08 0.09

91.77% of z-scores less
0.0
0.1
than or equal to 1.39
0.2
0.3
.
.
.

1.3 0.9177
1.4
Example: Find the area to the left of z = 2.06

0.980
0.980 or 98.03%
It 3
3

means that there are

−𝟑 2 −𝟏 0 1 2 3

z 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 … 0.06 0.07

98.03% of z-scores less
0.0
0.1
than or equal to 2.06
0.2
0.3
.
.
.

2.0 0.9803
2.1
Example: Find the area to the right of z = -1.19
1− 0.1170
0.1170
0.8830
0.883 or 88.30%
0
−𝟑 2 −𝟏 0 1 2 3 It means that there are
z 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 … 0.08 0.09 88.30% of z-scores greater
than or equal to -1.19
-3.4
-3.3
-3.2
-3.1
.
.
.

-1.1 0.1170
-1.0
Example: Find the area between z = -1.37 and z = 1.68
0.9535
0 .9535 − 0.0853
0.0853

0.8682 0.868 or 86.82%

2
−𝟑 2 −𝟏 0 1 2 3 It means that there are
z 0.00 0.01 0.02 … 0.07 0.08 0.09
86.82% of z-scores
-1.4
-1.3
-1.2
0.0853 between -1.37 and 1.68
-1.1
.
.
.

1.6 0.9535
1.7
 A Normal Distribution Curve as a
Probability Distribution Curve

0.477
2

−𝟑 2 −𝟏 0 1 2 3
 A Normal Distribution Curve as a
Probability Distribution Curve
The probability of selecting a
z value between 2.25 and
2.94 is shown in the figure.

−𝟑 2 −𝟏 0 1 2 3
Find the probability of any z value between 0 and 2.32

𝑷 ( 𝟎<𝒛<𝟐.𝟑𝟐 )
= 48.98% Note: In a continuous distribution,
the probability of any exact z
0.989 value is 0 since the area would
8 be represented by a vertical
line above the value. But
vertical lines in theory have no
area.
0.500 0.489
0 8
So P(a ≤ z ≤ b) = P(a < z < b)
−𝟑 2 −𝟏 0 1 2 3
Let’s Do These!
Find the probability for each:

a. P(z < 1.65) b. P(z > 1.91)

= 96.05% = 2.81%
PROBABILITY AND THE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION