LISTENING VS.

HEARNING

SEM3 SUBJECT
 HEARING
• is an accidental and automatic brain response to
sound that requires no effort. We are surrounded by
sounds most of the time. For example, we are
accustomed to the sounds of cars, construction
workers and so on. We hear those sounds and,
unless we have a reason to do otherwise, we learn
to ignore them.
 HEARING IS:

• Accidental-requires no effort
• Involuntary-detects any noise or
vibrations
• Effortless-sounds are captured
accurately.
 LISTENING

• -is purposeful and focused rather than

accidental. As a result, it requires motivation
and effort. Listening, at its best, is active,
focused, concentrated attention for the
purpose of understanding the meanings
expressed by a speaker.
 LISTENING IS:
• Focused- is a strategy that guides
students to listen closely to a text.
• Voluntary
• Intentional- paying attention
 COHESION AND
COHERENCE IN ESSAY
WRITING
• Cohesion concerns the flow of sentences and paragraphs
from one to another. It involves the tying together of old
information and new. When we write academic essays,
particularly in the humanities, we work hard to foster
cohesion structurally, which enhances a reader's
understanding of our ideas.
• It is important for the parts of a written text to be connected
together. Another word for this is cohesion. This word comes
from the word cohere, which means 'to stick together'.
Cohesion is therefore related to ensuring that the words and
sentences you use stick together.
Good cohesion is achieved through the following five main
methods, each of which is described in more
• detail below:
• Repeated words/ideas
• Reference words
• Transition signals
• Substitution
• Ellipsis
• Two other ways in which cohesion is achieved in a text, which
are covered less frequently in academic English courses, are
shell nouns and thematic development. These are also
considered below.
 REPEATED WORDS/IDEAS

• One way to achieve cohesion is to repeat words, or to repeat ideas

using different words (synonyms). Study the following example.
Repeated words (or synonyms) are shown in bold.
• Cohesion is an important feature of academic writing. It can
help ensure that your writing coheres or 'sticks together',
which will make it easier for the reader to follow the main ideas
in your essay or report. You can achieve good cohesion by
paying attention to five important features. The first of these
is repeated words. The second key feature is reference
words. The third one is transition signals. The fourth is
substitution. The final important aspect is ellipsis.
EX.
• Nobody owned any part of the land. Sotopo's
father owned many cattle, and if the cows continued to
produce calves, he might as well become the next chief.
Old Grandmother owned the beautifully tanned animal
skins she used as coverlets in winter. And
Sotopo owned his polished hard-wood assegais. But
the land belonged to the spirits who governed life; it
existed forever, for everyone, and was apportioned
temporarily according to the dictates of the tribal chief and
senior headman. Sotopo's father occupied the hillside for
the time being, and when he died the older son could
inherit the loan -- land, but no person or family every
acquired ownership.
• In this example, the word cohesion is used several
times, including as a verb (coheres). It is important,
in academic writing, to avoid too much repetition,
so using different word forms or synonyms is
common. The word writing is also used several
times, including the phrase essay or report, which is
a synonym for writing. The words important
features are also repeated, again using
synonyms: key feature, important aspect.
 REFERENCE WORDS
• Reference words are words which are used to refer to
something which is mentioned elsewhere in the text, usually
in a preceding sentence. The most common type is
pronouns, such as 'it' or 'this' or 'these'. Study the previous
example again. This time, the reference words are shown in
bold.
• The words it, which and these are reference words. The first
two of these, it and which, both refer to 'cohesion' used in
the preceding sentence. The final example, these, refers to
'important features', again used in the sentence that precedes
it.
• EX.

• Cohesion is an important feature of academic writing. It can

help ensure that your writing coheres or 'sticks
together', which will make it easier for the reader to follow
the main ideas in your essay or report. You can achieve
good cohesion by paying attention to five important features.
The first of these is repeated words. The second key feature
is reference words. The third one is transition signals. The
fourth is substitution. The final important aspect is ellipsis.
 TRANSITION SIGNALS

• Transition signals, also called cohesive devices or linking words, are words
or phrases which show the relationship between ideas. There are many
different types, the most common of which are explained in the next
section on transition signals. Some examples of transition signals are:
• for example - used to give examples
• in contrast - used to show a contrasting or opposite idea
• first - used to show the first item in a list
• as a result - used to show a result or effect
• Study the previous example again. This time, the transition signals
are shown in bold. Here the transition signals simply give a list,
relating to the five important features: first, second, third, fourth,
and final.

• Cohesion is an important feature of academic writing. It can

help ensure that your writing coheres or 'sticks together',
which will make it easier for the reader to follow the main
ideas in your essay or report. You can achieve good
cohesion by paying attention to five important features.
The first of these is repeated words. The second key
feature is reference words. The third one is transition
signals. The fourth is substitution. The final important
aspect is ellipsis.
 SUBSTITUTION

• Substitution means using one or more words to replace (substitute) for

one or more words used earlier in the text. Grammatically, it is similar
to reference words, the main difference being that substitution is usually
limited to the clause which follows the word(s) being substituted,
whereas reference words can refer to something far back in the text. The
most common words used for substitution are one, so, and auxiliary
verbs such as do, have and be. The following is an example.
• Drinking alcohol before driving is illegal in many countries,
since doing so can seriously impair one's ability to drive safely.
• In this sentence, the phrase 'doing so' substitutes for the phrase 'drinking
alcohol before driving' which appears at the beginning of the sentence.
•
Below is the example used throughout this section. There is just one
example of substitution: the word one, which substitutes for the phrase
'important features'.
•
Cohesion is an important feature of academic writing. It can help
ensure that your writing coheres or 'sticks together', which will make
it easier for the reader to follow the main ideas in your essay or
report. You can achieve good cohesion by paying attention to five
important features. The first of these is repeated words. The second
key feature is reference words. The third one is transition signals.
The fourth is substitution. The final important aspect is ellipsis.
 VOCABULARY

• Vocabulary refers to the words we must understand to communicate effectively.

Educators often consider four types of vocabulary: listening, speaking, reading, and
writing.
• Listening vocabulary refers to the words we need to know to understand what we hear.
Speaking vocabulary consists of the words we use when we speak. Reading vocabulary
refers to the words we need to know to understand what we read. Writing vocabulary
consists of the words we use in writing.
• Vocabulary plays an important part in learning to read. Beginning readers must use the
words they hear orally to make sense of the words they see in print. Kids who hear more
words spoken at home learn more words and enter school with better vocabularies. This
larger vocabulary pays off exponentially as a child progresses through school.
• Consider, for example, what happens when a beginning reader comes to the
word dig in a book. As she begins to figure out the sounds represented by
the letters d, i, g, the reader recognizes that the sounds make up a very
familiar word that she has heard and said many times. It is harder for a
beginning reader to figure out words that are not already part of their
speaking (oral) vocabulary.

• Vocabulary is key to reading comprehension. Readers cannot understand

what they are reading without knowing what most of the words mean. As
children learn to read more advanced texts, they must learn the meaning of
new words that are not part of their oral vocabulary.
 INDIRECT VOCABULARY LEARNING

• Children learn the meanings of most words indirectly,

through everyday experiences with oral and written
language. Children learn word meanings indirectly in three
ways:
• They engage daily in oral language
• They listen to adults read to them
• They read extensively on their own
 DIRECT VOCABULARY LEARNING

• Although a great deal of vocabulary is learned

indirectly, some vocabulary should be taught directly.
• Direct instruction helps students learn difficult words,
such as words that represent complex concepts that
are not part of the students' everyday experiences.
Direct instruction of vocabulary relevant to a given
text leads to better reading comprehension.
 DIRECT INSTRUCTION INCLUDES

• Providing students with instruction in specific words that are

important to students’ content learning or understanding of a
particular text.

• Teaching students more general word-learning strategies that

they can apply to a variety of words, such as analyzing parts of
words (e.g., root words)
 7 WAYS TO IMPROVE YOUR
VOCABULARY

• Develop a reading habit. Vocabulary building is easiest when you

encounter words in context. Seeing words appear in a novel or a
newspaper article can be far more helpful than seeing them appear on
vocabulary lists. Not only do you gain exposure to unfamiliar words;
you also see how they’re used.
• Use the dictionary and thesaurus. Online dictionaries and thesauruses
are helpful resources if used properly. They can jog your memory
about synonyms that would actually be better words in the context of
what you’re writing. A full dictionary definition can also educate you
about antonyms, root words, and related words, which is another way
to learn vocabulary.
• Play word games. Classic games like Scrabble and Boggle can function as a
fun way to expand your English vocabulary. Crossword puzzles can as well.
If you really want to be efficient, follow up rounds of these word games with
a little note-taking. Keep a list of the different words you learned while
playing the game, and then study that list from time to time.

• Use flashcards. A quick way to build a large vocabulary is to study a number

of words via flashcards. In today’s digital age, a wide array of smartphone
apps make flashcards convenient and easy to organize. Aiming for one new
word a day is reasonable. You can always go for more, but it may not be
reasonable to assimilate dozens of English words every single day.
• Subscribe to “word of the day” feeds. Some web platforms will provide you
with a word a day—either on a website, an app, or via email—to help you
expand your vocabulary. You can add these words to running word lists.

• Use mnemonics. A mnemonic device is a form of word association that helps

you remember words’ definitions and proper uses. For instance think of the
word obsequious which means “attempting to win favor from influential
people by flattery.” Break down that word into components: “obse” is the
beginning of “obsessed,” “qui” sounds like the French word for “yes” (oui),
and “us” is like the word “us.” So you can think of that big word obsequious
as “obsessed with saying yes to us”—which is kind of what it means!
• Practice using new words in conversation. It’s possible to
amass a huge vocabulary without actually knowing how to
use words. This means you have to take it upon yourself to
put your personal dictionary into use. If you come across an
interesting word in your reading, make a point of using it in
conversation. By experimenting in low-stakes situations, you
can practice the art of word choice and, with a little bit of
trial and error, hone in on the right word for a particular
context.
• Differences in Early Vocabulary Development

• We know that young children acquire vocabulary indirectly, first by

listening when others speak or read to them, and then by using
words to talk to others. As children begin to read and write, they
acquire more words through understanding what they are reading
and then incorporate those words into their speaking and writing.
• Vocabulary knowledge varies greatly among learners. The word
knowledge gap between groups of children begins before they enter
school. Why do some students have a richer, fuller vocabulary than
some of their classmates?
• Language rich home with lots of verbal stimulation
• Wide background experiences
• Read to at home and at school
• Read a lot independently
• Early development of word consciousness
• Why do some students have a limited, inadequate
vocabulary compared to most of their classmates?

• Speaking/vocabulary not encouraged at home

• Limited experiences outside of home
• Limited exposure to books
• Reluctant reader
• Second language—English language learners
• How Vocabulary Affects Reading Development?
• From the research, we know that vocabulary supports reading development and
increases comprehension. Students with low vocabulary scores tend to have low
comprehension and students with satisfactory or high vocabulary scores tend to have
satisfactory or high comprehension scores.
• The report of the National Reading Panel states that the complex process of
comprehension is critical to the development of children’s reading skills and cannot be
understood without a clear understanding of the role that vocabulary development and
instruction play in understanding what is read (NRP, 2000).
• Chall’s classic 1990 study showed that students with low vocabulary development were
able to maintain their overall reading test scores at expected levels through grade four,
but their mean scores for word recognition and word meaning began to slip as words
became more abstract, technical, and literary. Declines in word recognition and word
meaning continued, and by grade seven, word meaning scores had fallen to almost three
years below grade level, and mean reading comprehension was almost a year below.
Jeanne Chall coined the term “the fourth-grade slump” to describe this pattern in
developing readers (Chall, Jacobs, and Baldwin, 1990).
 INCIDENTAL AND INTENTIONAL
VOCABULARY LEARNING

• Incidental Vocabulary
• Learning Most students acquire vocabulary incidentally through
indirect exposure to words at home and at school—by listening and
talking, by listening to books read aloud to them, and by reading
widely on their own.

• The amount of reading is important to long-term vocabulary

development (Cunningham and Stanovich, 1998). Extensive reading
provides students with repeated or multiple exposures to words and is
also one of the means by which students see vocabulary in rich
contexts (Kamil and Hiebert, 2005).
 INTENTIONAL VOCABULARY
LEARNING

• Students need to be explicitly taught methods for intentional

vocabulary learning. According to Michael Graves (2000),
effective intentional vocabulary instruction includes:
• Teaching specific words (rich, robust instruction) to support
understanding of texts containing those words.
• Teaching word-learning strategies that students can use
independently.
• Promoting the development of word consciousness and using
word play activities to motivate and engage students in learning
new words.
 RESEARCH-SUPPORTED VOCABULARY-
LEARNING STRATEGIES

Students need a wide range of independent word-

learning strategies. Vocabulary instruction should aim
to engage students in actively thinking about word
meanings, the relationships among words, and how we
can use words in different situations. This type of rich,
deep instruction is most likely to influence
comprehension (Graves, 2006; McKeown and Beck,
2004).
 STUDENT-FRIENDLY DEFINITIONS

• The meaning of a new word should be explained to students rather

than just providing a dictionary definition for the word—which
may be difficult for students to understand. According to Isabel
Beck, two basic principles should be followed in developing
student-friendly explanations or definitions (Beck et al., 2013):
• Characterize the word and how it is typically used. Explain the
meaning using everyday language—language that is accessible
and meaningful to the student.
• Sometimes a word’s natural context (in text or literature) is not
informative or helpful for deriving word meanings (Beck et al., 2013).
It is useful to intentionally create and develop instructional contexts
that 27 provide strong clues to a word’s meaning. These are usually
created by teachers, but they can sometimes be found in commercial
reading programs.
• Defining Words within Context
• Research shows that when words and easy-to-understand explanations
are introduced in context, knowledge of those words increases
(Biemiller and Boote, 2006) and word meanings are better learned
(Stahl and Fairbanks, 1986). When an unfamiliar word is likely to
affect comprehension, the most effective time to introduce the words
meaning may be at the moment the word is met in the text.
 USING CONTEXT CLUES

• Research by Nagy and Scott (2000) showed that students

use contextual analysis to infer the meaning of a word by
looking closely at surrounding text. Since students
encounter such an enormous number of words as they
read, some researchers believe that even a small
improvement in the ability to use context clues has the
potential to produce substantial, long-term vocabulary
growth (Nagy, Herman, and Anderson, 1985; Nagy,
Anderson, and Herman, 1987; Swanborn and de Glopper,
1999).
 SKETCHING WORDS

• For many students, it is easier to remember a word’s

meaning by making a quick sketch that connects the word to
something personally meaningful to the student. The student
applies each target word to a new, familiar context. The
student does not have to spend a lot of time making a great
drawing. The important thing is that the sketch makes sense
and helps the student connect with the meaning of the word.
 APPLYING THE TARGET WORDS

• Applying the target words provides another context

for learning word meanings. When students are
challenged to apply the target words to their own
experiences, they have another opportunity to
understand the meaning of each word at a personal
level. This allows for deep processing of the
meaning of each word.
 ANALYZING WORD PARTS IS A
VOCABULARY LEARNING STRATEGY

• The ability to analyze word parts also helps when students

are faced with unknown vocabulary. If students know the
meanings of root words and affixes, they are more likely to
understand a word containing these word parts. Explicit
instruction in word parts includes teaching meanings of
word parts and disassembling and reassembling words to
derive meaning (Baumann et al., 2002; Baumann, Edwards,
Boland, Olejnik, and Kame'enui, 2003; Graves, 2004)
 SEMANTIC MAPPING

• Semantic maps help students develop connections among

words and increase learning of vocabulary words
(Baumann et al., 2003; Heimlich and Pittleman, 1986).
For example, by writing an example, a non-example, a
synonym, and an antonym, students must deeply process
the word persist.
 WORD CONSCIOUSNESS

• Word consciousness is an interest in and awareness of words (Anderson and

Nagy, 1992; Graves and Watts-Taffe, 2002). Students who are word
conscious are aware of the words around them—those they read and hear
and those they write and speak (Graves and Watts-Taffe, 2002). Word-
conscious students use words skilfully. They are aware of the subtleties of
word meaning. They are curious about language, and they enjoy playing
with words and investigating the origins and histories of words.
• Teachers need to take word-consciousness into account throughout their
instructional day—not just during vocabulary lessons (Scott and Nagy,
2004). It is important to build a classroom “rich in words” (Beck et al.,
2002). Students should have access to resources such as dictionaries,
thesauruses, word walls, crossword puzzles, Scrabble® and other word
games, literature, poetry books, joke books, and word-play activities.
 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

• Classroom management is the process by which teachers and

schools create and maintain appropriate behaviour of students in
classroom settings. The purpose of implementing classroom
management strategies is to enhance pro social behaviour and
increase student academic engagement (Emmer & Sabornie, 2015;
Everston & Weinstein, 2006). Effective classroom management
principles work across almost all subject areas and grade levels
(Brophy, 2006; Lewis, et al., 2006). When using a tiered model in
which school-wide support is provided at the universal level,
classroom behaviour management programs have shown to be
effective for 80-85 percent of all students. More intensive programs
may be needed for some students.
 EFFECTIVE CLASSROOM
MANAGEMENT:
• Establishes and sustains an orderly environment in the classroom.
Increases meaningful academic learning and facilitates social and
emotional growth. Decreases negative behaviours and increases time
spent academically engaged. Although effective classroom
management produces a variety of positive outcomes for students,
according to a 2006 survey of pre-K through grade 12 teachers
conducted by APA, teachers report a lack of support in implementing
classroom management strategies.
• Chaotic classroom environments are a large issue for teachers and can
contribute to high teacher stress and burnout rates. Therefore, it is
important to use effective classroom management strategies at the
universal level in a tiered model, as they serve as both prevention and
intervention methods that promote positive outcomes for students.
 WHAT IS CLASSROOM LANGUAGE?

• Classroom language is the routine language that is used on a regular

basis in classroom like giving instructions of praise, for example
“Take out your books” or “Please sit down”. This is language that
teachers are used to using and students are used to hearing, but when
teaching a language it takes a while to learn this part of the language.
Knowing these language basics reduces the amount that students are
forced to use their mother tongue and increases the amount of the
target language they are using; it makes the language classroom
environment more authentic.
 WHY CAN TEACHING CLASSROOM
LANGUAGE POSE A CHALLENGE?

• Teachers often experience difficulties when trying to integrate

classroom language into a lesson. The difficulty often lies in that
many second language teachers learned the language themselves
after childhood, so are not exposed to authentic classroom
language. Those teachers must make a particular effort to seek out
what the correct language is in order to create the most authentic
experience for the students. Students often encounter difficulties
when the form in the target language does not make sense in their
mother tongue; students must learn to accept that different
languages work in different ways.