Soil Taxonomy

• The Twelve Soil Orders

• In 1975, Soil Taxonomy was published by the United States
Department of Agriculture's Soil Survey Staff. This system for
classifying soils has undergone numerous changes since that
time, and the 2nd edition was published in 1999. Soil Taxonomy
remains one of the most widely used soil classification systems in
the world.

• At the highest level, Soil Taxonomy places soils in one of 12

categories known as orders. We have put together a collection of
information and images to illustrate the distribution, properties,
ecological significance, and use of these 12 soil orders.
Gelisols

•  (from Latin gelare, "to freeze") are soils of very

cold climates that contain permafrost within 2
meters of the surface.
• These soils are limited geographically to the high-
latitude polar regions and localized areas at high
mountain elevations.
• Because of the extreme environment in which they
are found, Gelisols support only ~0.4% of the
world's population - the lowest percentage of any
of the soil orders. 
Histosols
•  (from Greek histos, "tissue") are soils that are
composed mainly of organic materials.
• They contain at least 20-30% organic matter by
weight and are more than 40 cm thick.
• Bulk densities are quite low, often less than 0.3 g
cm3.
Spodosols 
• (from Greek spodos, "wood ash") are acid soils
characterized by a subsurface accumulation of
humus that is complexed with Al and Fe.
• These photogenic soils typically form in coarse-
textured parent material and have a light-colored E
horizon overlying a reddish-brown spodic horizon.
• The process that forms these horizons is known
as podzolization. 
Andisols 
• (from Japanese ando, "black soil") are soils that have
formed in volcanic ash or other volcanic ejecta.
• They differ from those of other orders in that they
typically are dominated by glass and short-range-order
colloidal weathering products such as allophane,
imogolite, and ferrihydrite.
• As a result, Andisols have andic properties - unique
chemical and physical properties that include high
water-holding capacity and the ability to 'fix' (and
make unavailable to plants) large quantities of
phosphorus.
Oxisols
•  (from French oxide, "oxide") are very highly
weathered soils that are found primarily in the
intertropical regions of the world.
• These soils contain few weatherable minerals and
are often rich in Fe and Al oxide minerals. 

Oxisols occupy ~7.5% of the global ice-free land

area. In the US, they only occupy ~0.02% of the
land area and are restricted to Hawaii.
Vertisols 

• (from Latin verto, "turn") are clay-rich soils that shrink

and swell with changes in moisture content. During
dry periods, the soil volume shrinks, and deep wide
cracks form.
• The soil volume then expands as it wets up. This
shrink/swell action creates serious engineering
problems and generally prevents formation of distinct,
well-developed horizons in these soils.
• Globally, Vertisols occupy ~2.4% of the ice-free land
area. In the US, they ccupy ~2.0% of the land area and
occur primarily in Texas.
Aridisols 

• (from Latin aridus, "dry") are CaCO3-containing soils of arid

regions that exhibit at least some subsurface horizon
development.
• They are characterized by being dry most of the year and
limited leaching. Aridisols contain subsurface horizons in
which clays, calcium carbonate, silica, salts, and/or gypsum
have accumulated.
• Materials such as soluble salts, gypsum, and CaCO3 tend to
be leached from soils of moister climates.

Aridisols occupy ~12% of the Earth's ice-free land area and

~8.3% of the US.
Ultisols
•  (from Latin ultimus, "last") are strongly leached, acid forest soils
with relatively low native fertility.
• They are found primarily in humid temperate and tropical areas of
the world, typically on older, stable landscapes.
• Intense weathering of primary minerals has occurred, and much Ca,
Mg, and K has been leached from these soils.
• Ultisols have a subsurface horizon in which clays have accumulated,
often with strong yellowish or reddish colors resulting from the
presence of Fe oxides. The 'red clay' soils of the southeastern United
States are examples of Ultisols.
• Ultisols occupy ~8.1% of the global ice-free land area and support
18% of the world's population. They are the dominant soils of much
of the southeastern US and occupy ~9.2% of the total US land area.
Mollisols
• (from Latin mollis, "soft") are the soils of grassland ecosystems.
They are characterized by a thick, dark surface horizon. This fertile
surface horizon, known as a mollic epipedon, results from the long-
term addition of organic materials derived from plant roots. 

Mollisols primarily occur in the middle latitudes and are extensive in

prairie regions such as the Great Plains of the US. Globally, they
occupy ~7.0% of the ice-free land area. In the US, they are the most
extensive soil order, accounting for ~21.5% of the land area.

Mollisols are among some of the most important and productive

agricultural soils in the world and are extensively used for this
purpose.
Alfisols
•  are moderately leached soils that have relatively high native
fertility. These soils have mainly formed under forest and
have a subsurface horizon in which clays have accumulated.
Alfisols are primarily found in temperate humid and
subhumid regions of the world.

Alfisols occupy ~10.1% of the global ice-free land area. In the

US, they account for ~13.9% of the land area. Alfisols support
about 17% of the world's population.

The combination of generally favorable climate and high

native fertility allows Alfisols to be very productive soils for
both agricultural and silvicultural use.
Inceptisols 

• (from Latin inceptum, "beginning") are soils that exhibit minimal

horizon development. They are more developed than Entisols, but
still lack the features that are characteristic of other soil orders. 

Although not found under aridic climate regimes, Inceptisols

nevertheless are widely distributed and occur across a wide range
of ecological settings.
• They are often found on fairly steep slopes, young geomorphic
surfaces, and on resistant parent materials. Land use varies
considerably with Inceptisols. A sizable percentage of Inceptisols
are found in mountainous areas and are used for forestry,
recreation, and watershed. 
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Entisols

•  are soils of recent origin. The central concept is soils developed

in unconsolidated parent material with usually no genetic
horizons except an A horizon. All soils that do not fit into one of
the other 11 orders are Entisols. Thus, they are characterized
by great diversity, both in environmental setting and land use. 

Many Entisols are found in steep, rocky settings. However,

Entisols of large river valleys and associated shore deposits
provide cropland and habitat for millions of people worldwide.

Globally Entisols are the most extensive of the soil orders,

occupying ~18% of the Earth's ice-free land area. In the US,
Entisols occupy ~12.3% of the land area.