CIRCUITAL

ARRANGEMENT
Thermocouple, RTD, Thermistor
 • When a pair of dissimilar metals are joined together for the purpose of measuring
temperature, the device formed is called a thermocouple .

WHY THERMOCOUPLE?
• Thermocouples made for instrumentation use metals of high purity for
THERMOCOUPLE an accurate temperature/voltage relationship
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CIRCUITAL ARRANGEMENT -
THERMOCOUPLE

1 2

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MEASURING JUNCTION
• Usually varied with respect to Temperature (Uses SEEBECK EFFECT)
•  The junction formed by the connection between the thermocouple and the meter on the top wire will produce a
temperature-dependent voltage opposed in polarity to the voltage produced at the measurement junction.  (Junction 1)

REFERENCE JUNCTION
• This second junction is called the reference or cold junction, in order to get Potential difference between two junctions,
we need a reference junction whose measurements must be already known, so we use the technique called ICE BATH
here.
• So this junction is immersed in Semi-frozen block at a constant temperature of the melting point phase, phase
transitions fixed 0 degree.

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INSIDE THERMOCOUPLE

VOLTAGE CALCULATION
Vout
Usually produces less voltage in Range: 8mV to 30mV

𝑉 𝑜𝑢𝑡 =𝑆 𝑥 ( 𝑇 𝑚 −𝑇 𝑟
1 2

Tm Tr
Vout = Output voltage
Sx = Seebeck coefficient
Tm = Temperature at Measuring Junction
Tr = Temperature at Reference Junction
 TEMPERATURE VS CURRENT
Any current in a thermocouple circuit is a function of circuit resistance in opposition to the voltage (I=E/R).
 
 As the relationship between temperature and Seebeck voltage is fixed, while the relationship between
temperature and current is variable, depending on the total resistance of the circuit. With heavy enough
thermocouple conductors, currents upwards of hundreds of amps can be generated from a single pair of
thermocouple junctions!

VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT
The voltmeter used in a thermocouple circuit is designed to have very high resistance so as to avoid any error-
inducing voltage drops along the thermocouple wire.  
Ideally, then, current in a thermocouple circuit is zero
 THERMOPILE
By connecting many thermocouples in series, alternating hot/cold temperatures with each junction, a device called
a thermopile can be constructed to produce substantial amounts of voltage and current.
 PELTIER EFFECT IN THERMOPILE
With the left and right sets of junctions at the same temperature, the voltage at each junction will be equal and the
opposing polarities would cancel to a final voltage of zero.

 The voltage at each left junction would be greater than each right junction, resulting in a total output voltage equal
to the sum of all junction pair differentials,  as current flows through an external load circuit connected to the
thermopile, heat energy is transferred from the hot junctions to the cold junctions, demonstrating another thermo-
electric phenomenon: the so-called Peltier Effect (electric current transferring heat energy).
 PARALLEL CONNECTION OF THERMOCOUPLE

Measurement of average temperature between several locations can be done by connecting several thermocouples
in parallel with each other

The millivolt signal produced by each thermocouple will average out at the parallel junction point. The voltage
differences between the junctions drop along with the resistance of the thermocouple wires
 BURNOUT CONDITION
The most common failure mode for thermocouples is to fail open, otherwise known as “burning out.”

CAUSE: design fault ,metal fatigue, and oxidation

IMPACT: Excess temperature

An open thermocouple is problematic for any voltage-measuring instrument with high input impedance because the
lack of a complete circuit on the input makes it possible for electrical noise from surrounding sources (power lines,
electric motors, variable-frequency motor drives) to be detected by the instrument and falsely interpreted as a wildly
varying temperature.

While burnout, we can configure the meter to either have upscale burnout i.e. read high temperature or downscale
burnout i.e. read low temperature.

The Burnout Mode Switch allows selection of burnout mode – hi for upscale, and lo for downscale
 BURNOUT CONDITION

Upscale burnout is achieved by supplying a small current (sourced by the instrument’s internal milli-voltage
source) to a thermocouple’s input. In the diagram above, the resistor in the circuit provides a path for current in
the event of an open thermocouple. In real life applications the small current supplied to the circuit would be
offset by the zero and span adjustments. Typical values transmitted from the field to the control system are
≤3.2 mA (for down scale burnout) and ≥21.6 mA (for up scale burnout)
 SIGNAL CONDITIONING
The most common thermocouple types are J, K, and T. At room temperature, their voltage varies at 52 µV/°C, 41
µV/°C, and 41 µV/°C, respectively. This small signal requires a high gain stage before analog-to-digital conversion.
So we amplify the signal to get higher voltage.(AD8495 -a complete instrumentation amplifier and thermocouple
cold junction compensator on a monolithic chip)

Another advantage of a TC amplifier is noise reduction.  Unamplified TC signals are in the milli- or even microvolt
range, and thus are susceptible to being buried in ambient electrical noise.

COLD JUNCTION COMPENSATION

Thermocouple circuit with one end at an unknown temperature and the other end in an ice bath (0°C). This method
was used to exhaustively characterize the various thermocouple types, thus almost all thermocouple tables use 0°C
as the reference temperature.

HOWEVER, this is not a practical option in industry.

 VOLTAGE COMPENSATION OF REFERENCE
JUNCTION
• Compensation for the voltage generated by the reference junction is typically performed by a special circuit
designed to measure temperature there and produce a corresponding voltage to counter the reference
junction’s effects.

ELECTRIC BRIDGE METHOD

The system incorporates a temperature sensitive resistance

element (RT), which is in one leg of the bridge network and
thermally integrated with the cold junction (T2).

The bridge is usually energized from a mercury battery or

stable DC power source. 

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 • A change in temperature causes the electrical resistance of a material to
change. The resistance change is measured to infer the temperature change.
• RTD have a positive temperature coefficient (resistance increases with
temperature).
.

WHY RTD?
RTD • RTDs are made for precise measurement even in extreme
environments and are suitable for higher temperature ranges.
BRIDGE CIRCUIT
𝑅 𝑥 =𝑅 𝑅𝑇𝐷
¿
• R1, R2, R3 are known Resistors
• A is a sensitive ammeter
• Vs is the voltage source

As per Wheatstone bridge condition,

Therefore Rx is given by,

 RTD RESISTANCE RATIO

• The term “resistance ratio” describes the average slope of temperature vs. resistance as the RTD
temperature changes from 0°C to +100°C. The expression for resistance ratio is:
 
(R100-R0) / R0
 
Where:
R100 = RTD Resistance at 100°C.
R0 = RTD Resistance at 0°C.
 
Resistance ratio is affected by the type and purity of the metal used to make the RTD.

In general, RTDs that have a high R0 value combined with a high resistance ratio are easier to
measure accurately, but other characteristics of the metal used in the resistance wire still affect the
inherent accuracy of the RTD.
 2-WIRE RTD CIRCUIT

• As per Wheatstone bridge formula,

• Rlead -  resistance of one of the wires that run from the bridge to the RTD itself.
• Since the resistance of metal wire changes with temperature, R lead changes with T, which can cause errors in the
measurement.
• This error can be non-trivial –  changes in lead resistance may be misinterpreted as changes in RTD resistance .
 LEAD RESISTANCE

• Lead wires have resistance that is a function of the material used, wire size, and lead length. This
resistance can add to the measured RTD resistance, and improper wire compensation can result in
significant errors.

• Nickel creates a high resistance at 0°C and has a high resistance ratio, making this sensitive RTD
easy to measure

•  For an RTD, the approximate error due to lead wire resistance is:
 

Lead wire resistance / (R100-R0) x 0.01

 
3-WIRE RTD CIRCUIT / LEAD WIRE
COMPENSATION CIRCUIT

From wheat stone bridge formula,

Assume
∴

Therefore in Wheatstone voltage formula,

There wont be any change, so there is no intervening of Lead

wire.
4-WIRE RTD CIRCUIT

 A four wire RTD circuit removes the effect of mismatched resistances on the lead wires
 CALLENDAR VAN DUSEN EQUATIONS
• The Callendar van Dusen equations describe the temperature vs. resistance relationship of
industrial platinum RTDs.

• For temperatures < 0°C, RTD resistance at a given temperature is:

Rt = R0[1 + At + Bt² + C (t - 100) t³]

 
• For temperatures ≥ 0°C, RTD resistance at a given temperature is:

Rt = R0(1 + At + Bt²)
 
• Callendar Van Dusen’s relation for Temperature vs Resistance is:
 CALLENDAR VAN DUSEN EQUATIONS

• Coefficients A, B, C, and α, δ, β are unique to each

RTD.

•  Here, “α” is the “Alpha” constant. Alpha is

resistance ratio/100:

α = (R100 – R0) / (100 x R0)

• From the diagram, we can see that,

 HEATING EFFECT
• The current that flows through RTD, account for the heating effect in the circuit. Thus, the generated heat
increases the temperature of the RTD sensor.

• I2R amount of power dissipated by the RTD that causes self-heating

•  A reduction in current through RTD will definitely reduce the heat generation rate but, the sensitivity of the
device also reduces. However, it can be improved with proper amplification.

• The increase in temperature of the device due to self-heating effect can be given as:

        
∆T = rise in temperature in ⁰C due to heating effect
P = power dissipated in RTD in watts
Pd = Dissipation constant of RTD in W/ ⁰C, D issipation constant is the number relates the power required to
raise the RTD temperature by one degree of temperature.
• Self-heating can be minimized by supplying lower excitation current.
PERMISSIBLE MEASURING CURRENT
Permissible measuring current of a RTD is the maximum amount of current measured as
error by the circuit dude to self heating.

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𝑃=𝐼 𝑅𝑉   ¿
¿ ❑
P From heating effect

𝐼 max =
√
• Rv is the Resistance of detector at 0ºC Ω
Δ 𝑇 max ⋅ 𝑃 𝑑
𝑅𝑣

• ∆Tmax is the maximum allowable self heating Temperature error

• Pd is the Dissipation constant 27
 • Non linear, temperature dependant resistor.
• Has two types: NTC, PTC.

WHY THERMISTOR?
THERMISTOR •  High sensitivity allows them to work well over a small temperature
range
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 THERMISTOR EQUATION

Where:
T1 is the first temperature point in Kelvin
T2 is the second temperature point in Kelvin
R1 is the thermistors resistance at temperature T1 in Ohms
R2 is the thermistors resistance at temperature T2 in Ohms

• From this equation we can clearly see that Temperature is a non-linear function of
Resistance
STEINHART-HART EQUATION

• The Steinhart and Hart Equation is an empirical expression that has been determined to be the best
mathematical expression for resistance temperature relationship of NTC thermistors and NTC probe
assemblies.

• A,B,C are constants and vary with respect to type of thermistor material and temperature range of interest
• The term (lnR)² is neglected here because of its small value.

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 VOLTAGE VS CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS

• As large current and voltage produces large heat dissipation and heats up the thermistor sufficiently and it’s resistance
decreases. This furtherly helps in drawing more current which again results in further decrease of resistance.

• This continues till heat dissipated equals to power supplied to thermistor

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THERMISTOR AS TEMPERATURE MEASURING CIRCUIT

• Since thermistors are highly sensitive even for a small change in temperature it makes it obvious to use them in
applications where small change of temperature is to be measured.
• A typical industrial thermistor with 2000ohm at 25 degrees with temp coefficient 3.9% can change its resistance by
78ohms for 1 degree. This shows that how small values of temperature can be measured.
• Thermistor is connected in Wheatstone bridge and the unbalanced voltage is measured.

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TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION OF THERMISTOR

• Because of negative temperature coefficient, thermistors are used to compensate for temperature loss caused by
circuit elements having positive coefficient.
• Compensator consists of shunt resistance and thermistor.
• The negative temp coefficient of this combination is set to be equal to positive coefficient if of circuit element like
copper(wires).

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PYROMETRY ​
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