Scan Conversion

Rectangles, Arcs, Polygons

Rectangle
 If two vertices P1(x1, y1) and
P1(x1, y1) P4(x2, y1)
P2(x2, y2) are given
 Then four vertices are
P1(x1, y1) P2(x2,
y2)
P3(x1, y2) P4(x2,
y1)
 Draw line from P3(x1, y2) P2(x2, y2)
P1 to P4, P1 to P3,
P3 to P4 P4 to P3
Arcs and Sectors
 An arc may be generated either polynomial
and trigonometric method
 For trigonometric method
 Starting value is set to ø1

 Ending value is set to ø2

 Use this polar equations
x = xc + r cos
y = yc + r sin
 Symmetry is not used
 For Polynomial method
 The value of x is varied from x1 to x2
 y is calculated from the relation
y  r 2  x2
Polygon

 Polygon is a closed polyline in

which the initial and terminal
points are coincide
 A surface defined by three or
more non-collinear vertices
 Represented as a number of line
segments connected end to end
to end to form a closed figure.
 Divided into two class
Convex and Concave
Polygon
 Convex
 All interior angles are less
than 180 degrees
 Or line that connected two
points in a polygon remain
inside the polygon boundary

 Concave
 Interior angles can be greater
than 180 degrees
 line that connected two points
in a polygon some part
remain outside the polygon
boundary
Inside-outside Test
 To determine the status of a point
(xp,yp)
 consider a horizontal line
emanating from (xp,yp) to the right.
 If the number of times this ray
intersects the line segments
making up the polygon is even
then the point is outside the
polygon.
 Whereas if the number of
intersections is odd then the point
(xp,yp) lies inside the polygon.
 for the purposes 0 will be
considered even
 this algorithm also works for
polygons with holes
Inside-outside Test

 Odd-Even rule:
 Let (x,y) be the point we are trying to determine if it is
inside or outside of an object. Draw a line between
this point and a distant point P. If the number of edges
it crosses is odd then it is an interior point.
 (Set distant point P to be outside bounding box)

P
Inside-outside Test
 Counts the number of times  nonzero winding number
the polygon edges wind rule
around a particular point in
the counterclockwise
direction.
 This count is called the
winding number,
 The interior points of a two-
dimensional object are –1 –1 +1
+1
defined to be those that
have a nonzero value for
the winding number
Inside-outside Test
 Initialize the winding number  nonzero winding number
to 0 rule
 Imagine a line drawn from
any position P to a distant
point beyond the coordinate
extents of the object.
 The line must not pass
through any vertices.
–1 –1 +1 +1
Inside-outside Test
 As move along the line from  nonzero winding number
position P to the distant point, rule
 we count the number of
edges that cross the line in
each direction.
 Add 1 to the winding
number if the line intersect
a polygon edge that
crosses the line from right +1
to left, and –1 –1 +1
 Subtract 1 every time if the
line intersect an edge that
crosses from left to right.
Inside-outside Test
 The final value of the winding  nonzero winding number
number, after all edge crossings rule
have been counted.
 If the winding number is
nonzero, P is defined to be
an interior point. Otherwise,
P is taken to be an exterior
point.
 For standard polygons and
other simple shapes, the –1 –1 +1 +1
nonzero winding number rule
and the odd-even rule give the
same results.
 But for more complicated
shapes, the two methods may
yield different interior and
exterior regions.
Filled-Area Primitives
 There are two basic approaches to area filling on raster
systems.
 One way to fill an area is to determine the overlap
intervals for scan lines that cross the area.
 The scan-line approach is typically used in general
graphics packages to fill polygons, circles, ellipses,
and other simple curves.
 Another method for area filling is to start from a given
interior position and paint outward from this point until we
encounter the specified boundary conditions.
 All methods starting from an interior point are useful
with more complex boundaries and in interactive
painting systems.
Boundary-Fill Algorithm
Boundary-fill procedure accepts
 an interior point (x, y)
 a boundary color
 a fill color
 useful in interactive painting packages, where interior
points are easily selected
fill color

interior point (x, y)

Boundary-Fill Algorithm
boundary color
 Starting from (x, y), the
procedure tests neighboring
positions to determine whether
they are of the boundary color.
 If not, they are painted with the interior point (x, y)
fill color, and their neighbors are
tested.
 This process continues until all fill color
pixels up to the boundary color
for the area have been tested.
 Both inner and outer boundaries
can be set up to specify an area
Boundary-Fill Algorithm

 Fill methods applied to a

 4-connected area

 8-connected area
Boundary-Fill Algorithm

4 connected 8 connected

start point
Flood-Fill Algorithm
 Sometimes we want to fill in (or
recolor) an area that is not
defined within a single color
boundary but bordered by
several different color regions
 We can paint such areas by
replacing a specified interior
color instead of searching for a
boundary color value
 Start from a specified interior
point (x, y) called seed.
Flood-Fill Algorithm
 Reassign all pixel values that
are currently set to a given
interior color with the desired fill
color.
 If the area we want to paint has
more than one interior color, we start point
can first reassign pixel values so
that all interior points have the
same color.
 Using either a 4 connected or 8-
connected approach, we then
step through pixel positions until
all interior points have been
repainted.
Scan-line Polygon Filling Algorithm
 Each scan line crossing
a polygon, the area-fill
algorithm locates polygon
1. The intersection
points of the scan
line with the polygon
edges. scan-line
2. These intersection
points are then
sorted from left to 10 14 18 24
right,
3. The corresponding two stretches of interior pixels from x = 10
frame-buffer to x = 14 and from x = 18 to x = 24
positions between
each intersection
pair are set to the
specified fill color
Scan-line Polygon Filling Algorithm

 The basic scan-line

algorithm is as follows:
 Find the intersections of
the scan line with all
edges of the polygon
 Sort the intersections
by increasing x
For y = ymin to ymax
coordinate 1. intersect scanline y with each
 Fill in all pixels between edge
pairs of intersections 2. sort interesections by
increasing x [p0,p1,p2,p3]
that lie interior to the
3. fill pairwise (p0 - p1, p2 - p3)
polygon
Scan-line Polygon Filling Algorithm
Scan-line intersections at polygon vertices require special
handling

 The topological scan-line y /

1 2 1
difference between
scan line y and scan scan-line y
1 2 1 1
line y' is identified by
noting the position of
the intersecting edges
relative to the scan
line. • Scan line y generates an odd number (5)
of intersections,
• Scan line y‘ generals an even number of
intersections that can be paired to identify
correctly the interior pixel spans.
Scan-line Polygon Filling Algorithm
 For scan line y,
 the two intersecting
edges sharing a scan-line y/
vertex are on 1 2 1
opposite sides of
the scan line. scan-line y
1 2 1 1
 For scan line y',
 the two intersecting
edges are both
above the scan line.
 The vertices that have
connecting edges on These vertices are identified by tracing
opposite sides of the around the polygon boundary either in
scan line clockwise or counterclockwise order and
 require additional observing the relative changes in vertex
processing y coordinates as we move from one edge
to the next
 Scan-line Polygon Filling Algorithm
• These vertices are
identified by
• Tracing around the
scan-line y/
polygon boundary 1 2 1
either in clockwise or
counterclockwise scan-line y
order 1 2 1 1
• Observing the relative
changes in vertex y
coordinates as we
move from one edge
to the next
• If the endpoint y values of • Otherwise, the shared vertex
two consecutive edges represents a local extremum
monotonically increase or (minimum or maximum) on the
decrease,
• the middle vertex
polygon boundary
counts as a single • The two edge intersections with the
intersection point scan line passing through that vertex
can be added to the intersection list
Scan-line Polygon Filling Algorithm
 when a scan line intersects an edge endpoint, it intersects two
edges.
 Two cases:
 Case A: edges are monotonically increasing or decreasing
 Case B: edges reverse direction at endpoint
 In Case A, we should consider this as only ONE edge intersection
the lower edge can be shortened to ensure that only one intersection
point is generated for the scan line
 In Case B, we should consider this as TWO edge intersections

Scan-line
Scan-line

Case B
Case A
Scan-line Polygon Filling Algorithm

(a) (b)

 The edge currently being processed is indicated by solid line

 When the endpoint y coordinates of the two edges are increasing, the y
value of the upper endpoint for the current edge is decreased by 1 [In
(a)]
 When the endpoint y values are monotonically decreasing, decrease
they coordinate of the upper endpoint of the edge following the current
edge [In (b)]
Scan-line Polygon Filling Algorithm
Derive next intersection
 Calculations performed in scan line conversion typically
take the advantage of various coherence properties of a
scan scene.
 Coherence: the properties of a scene are related in some way
to other parts of the scene so that the relationship can be used
to reducing processing
y k 1  y k (1)
 Slope m
xk 1  xk

 For two successive scan lines y k 1  y k  1

x k 1  x k  1 (2)
m
m  y  xk 1  x k  x (3)
x y
Scan-line Polygon Filling Algorithm
Derive next intersection
 Consider that scan line starts from ymin though practically starts it
from ymax
 Using eq-(3) x-intercepts can be found as follows
 Initialize a counter to 0
 Increment the counter by x for each scan line (move up)
 When counter value equal or greater than y
 Increment x by 1

 Decrement counter by y

 Example:
 Suppose m = 7/3 [y = 7; x=3]
 Initially, set counter to 0, and increment to x = 3.
 When move to next scan line, increment counter by 3
 When counter is equal or greater than 7 (y), increment the x-
intercept by 1 and and decrement counter by 7.
Scan-line Polygon Filling Algorithm
Line with slope 7/3

yk
xk
Scan-line Polygon Filling Algorithm
Line with slope 7/3

decrement 0 7
4
decrement 1 8
5
decrement 2 9
6
3
0 yk

xk
Scan-line Polygon Filling Algorithm
Active Edge List
 Start with the sorted edge table.
 In this table, there is an entry for each scan-line.
 Add only the non-horizontal edges into the table.
 For each edge, we add it to the scan-line that it begins with
(that is, the scan-line equal to its lowest y-value).
 For each edge entry, store (1) the x-intercept with the scan-
line, (2) the largest y-value of the edge, and (3) the inverse of
the slope.
 Each scan-line entry thus contains a sorted list of edges. The
edges are sorted left to right. (To maintain sorted order, just use
insertion based on their x value.)
 Next, we process the scan lines from bottom to top.
 We maintain an active edge list for the current scan-line.
 The active edge list contains all the edges crossed by that scan
line. As we move up, update the active edge list by the sorted
edge table if necessary.
 Use iterative coherence calculations to obtain edge intersections
quickly.
Antialiasing
 Aliasing is the jagged effect seen on lines and polygon
boundaries after rasterization and is caused by under-sampling
Aliasing is caused by finite addressability of the display
 Antialiasing is the process of getting rid of the jaggedness of
rasterized geometric primitives.
 Antialiasing by super-sampling:
Assign intensities to pixels dependent on the percentage of the
ideal line that crosses the pixel. This can be thought of as area
averaging or linear filtering of sub-sampled pixels.

aliasing anti-aliasing
Aliasing / Antialiasing Examples
Antialiasing

 super-sampling

10 6
pixel  blue   red 
16 16
Half-toning and Dithering
 Half-toning
 technique to simulate gray levels by creating patterns of
black dots of varying size
 Dithering (= digital half-toning)
 use digital halftone to simulate halftoning with fixed sized
pixels