PERSONALITY & ORGANIZATIONAL

PERFORMANCE
DR.T.MUTETEI
Meaning of Personality

 The word "personality" stems from the Latin word persona, which refers to a
theatrical mask worn by performers to play roles or disguise their identities.
 Personality describes the unique patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
that distinguish a person from others.
 A product of both biology and environment, it remains fairly consistent
throughout life.
 Examples of personality can be found in how we describe other people's
traits.
 For instance, "She is generous, caring, and a bit of a perfectionist," or "They
are loyal and protective of their friends."
 Personality is defined as the characteristic sets of behaviors, cognitions and emotional

patterns that evolve from biological and environmental factors.

 Personality refers to individual differences in characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling

and behaving.

 The study of personality focuses on two broad areas: One is understanding individual

differences in particular personality characteristics, such as sociability or irritability. The

other is understanding how the various parts of a person come together as a whole.
THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

 The trait theory of personality- suggests that people have certain basic traits
and it is the strength and intensity of those traits that account for personality
differences.
 The way psychologists have thought about personality-defining traits has
evolved over time.
 The trait approach to personality is one of the major theoretical areas in the
study of personality.
 Trait theory suggests that individual personalities are composed of broad
dispositions
 A trait is a personality characteristic that meets three criteria:
 it must be consistent,
 stable, and vary from person to person.
  Based on this definition, a trait can be thought of as a relatively stable
characteristic that causes individuals to behave in certain ways.
  The trait approach to personality is focused on differences between
individuals.
 The combination and interaction of various traits form a personality that is
unique to each person.
 Trait theory is focused on identifying and measuring these individual
personality characteristics
Allport’s Trait Theory

 In 1936, psychologist Gordon Allport found that one English-language

dictionary contained more than 4,000 words describing 
different personality traits. He categorized these traits into three levels:
 Cardinal Traits
 Allport suggested that cardinal traits are rare and dominating, usually
developing later in life.
 They tend to define a person to such an extent that their names become
synonymous with their personality.
 Examples of this include the following descriptive terms: Machiavellian,
narcissistic, Don Juan, and Christ-like.
 Central Traits
 These general characteristics form basic personality foundations. While
central traits are not as dominating as cardinal traits, they describe the major
characteristics you might use to describe another person. Descriptions such as
"intelligent," "honest," "shy," and "anxious" are considered central traits.
 Secondary Traits
 Secondary traits are sometimes related to attitudes or preferences. They
often appear only in certain situations or under specific circumstances. Some
examples include public speaking anxiety or impatience while waiting in line.
Cattell’s 16-Factor Personality Model

 Trait theorist Raymond Cattell reduced the number of main personality traits

from Allport’s initial list of over 4,000 down to 171.
 He did so primarily by eliminating uncommon traits and combining common
characteristics.
 Next, Cattell rated a large sample of individuals for these 171 different traits.
Using a statistical technique known as factor analysis, he then identified
closely related terms and eventually reduced his list to 16 key personality
traits. Among them are dominance, perfectionism, reasoning, and self-
reliance.
 According to Cattell, these 16 traits are the source of all human personalities.
He also developed one of the most widely used personality assessments. the
16 Personality Factor Questionnaire.
Eysenck’s 3 Dimensions of Personality

 British psychologist Hans Eysenck developed a model of personality based on

just three universal traits.
 Introversion/Extraversion
 Introversion involves directing attention to inner experiences,
while extraversion relates to focusing attention outward, onto other people
and the environment.
 A person high in introversion might be quiet and reserved, while an individual
high in extraversion (often spelled "extroversion") might be sociable and
outgoing.
 Neuroticism/Emotional Stability
 This dimension of Eysenck’s trait theory is related to moodiness versus even-
temperedness.
 Neuroticism refers to an individual’s tendency to become upset or emotional,
while stability refers to the tendency to remain emotionally constant.
 Psychoticism
 Later, after studying individuals suffering from mental illness, Eysenck added
a personality dimension he called psychoticism to his trait theory.
 Individuals who are high on this trait tend to have difficulty dealing with
reality and may be antisocial, hostile, non-empathetic, and manipulative.
Five-Factor Model of Personality

 Both Cattell’s and Eysenck’s theories have been the subject of considerable
research.
 This has led some theorists to believe that Cattell focused on too many
traits, while Eysenck focused on too few. As a result, a new trait theory often
referred to as the "Big Five" theory emerged.
 This five-factor model of personality represents five core traits that interact
to form human personality.
  While researchers often disagree about the exact labels for each dimension,
the following are described most commonly:
 Agreeableness: level of cooperation and caring for others
 Conscientiousness: level of thoughtfulness and structure
 Extraversion: level of socialness and emotional expressiveness
 Neuroticism: level of mood stability and emotional resilience
 Openness: level of adventure and creativity
Criticisms of Trait Theory

 Most theorists and psychologists agree that people can be described based on
their personality traits.
 Yet, theorists continue to debate the number of basic traits that make up human
personality.
 While trait theory has an objectivity that some personality theories lack (such as
Freud’s psychoanalytic theory), it also has weaknesses.
 Some of the most common criticisms of trait theory center on the fact that traits
are often poor predictors of behavior.
  While an individual may score high on assessments of a specific trait, they may
not always behave that way in every situation.
 Another problem is that trait theories do not address how or why individual
differences in personality develop or emerge.
Psychodynamic Theories

 Psychodynamic theories of personality are heavily influenced by the work of Sigmund

Freud and emphasize the influence of the unconscious mind on personality( ID-pleasure

seeking part of the mind, Ego-The reality/decision making part of the mind and superego-

morality seeking part of the mind)

 Psychodynamic theories include Sigmund Freud’s psychosexual stage theory and Erik

Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development.

 Behavioral Theories

 Behavioral theories suggest that personality is a result of interaction between the

individual and the environment.
 Behavioral theorists study observable and measurable behaviors, often
ignoring the role of internal thoughts and feelings.

 Behavioral theorists include B.F. Skinner and John B. Watson.

 Humanist
 Humanist theories emphasize the importance of free will and individual
experience in developing ​a personality.
 Humanist theorists include Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.
Humanistic theories-Abraham Maslow’s
theory of personality
 As a leader of humanistic psychology, Abraham Maslow approached the study of
personality psychology by focusing on subjective experiences and free will.
 He was mainly concerned with an individual's innate drive toward self-
actualization—a state of fulfillment in which a person is achieving at his or her
highest level of capability.
 Maslow positioned his work as a vital complement to that of Sigmud Freud’s
Psychoanalytic theory.
 In his research, Maslow studied the personalities of people who he considered to
be healthy, creative, and productive, including Albert Einstein, Eleanor
Roosevelt, Thomas Jefferson, Abraham Lincoln, and others. He found that such
people share similar characteristics, such as being open, creative, loving,
spontaneous, compassionate, concerned for others, and accepting of
themselves. 
 Personality and the Hierarchy of Needs

 Maslow is perhaps most well-known for his hierarchy of needs theory, in which

he proposes that human beings have certain needs in common and that these
needs must be met in a certain order.

 These needs range from the most basic physiological needs for survival to

higher-level self-actualization and transcendence needs.
 Maslow's hierarchy is most often presented visually as a pyramid, with the
largest, most fundamental physiological needs at the bottom and the
smallest, most advanced self-actualization needs at the top.

 Each layer of the pyramid must be fulfilled before moving up the pyramid to
higher needs, and this process is continued throughout the lifespan.

 Maslow believed that successful fulfillment of each layer of needs was vital in
the development of personality.
 The highest need for self-actualization represents the achievement of our
fullest potential, and those individuals who finally achieved self-actualization
were said to represent optimal psychological health and functioning.

 Maslow stretched the field of psychological study to include fully-functional

individuals instead of only those with psychoses, and he shed a more positive
light on personality psychology.
Characteristics of Self-Actualizers

 Maslow viewed self-actualizers as the supreme achievers in the human race.

 He studied stand-out individuals in order to better understand what

characteristics they possessed that allowed them to achieve self-
actualization.

 In his research, he found that many of these people shared certain

personality traits. 

 Most self-actualizers had a great sense of awareness, maintaining a near-

constant enjoyment and awe of life.
 They often described peak experiences during which they felt such an intense
degree of satisfaction that they seemed to transcend themselves.

 They actively engaged in activities that would bring about this feeling of
unity and meaningfulness.

 Despite this fact, most of these individuals seemed deeply rooted in reality
and were active problem-seekers and solvers.
 They developed a level of acceptance for what could not be changed and a
level of spontaneity and resilience to tackle what could be changed.

 Most of these people had healthy relationships with a small group with which
they interacted frequently.

 According to Maslow, self-actualized people indicate a coherent personality

syndrome and represent optimal psychological health and functioning.
 Maslow's ideas have been criticized for their lack of scientific rigor.

 As with all early psychological studies, questions have been raised about the
lack of empirical evidence used in his research.

 Because of the subjective nature of the study, the holistic approach allows for

a great deal of variation but does not identify enough constant variables in
order to be researched with true accuracy.
 Psychologists also worry that such an extreme focus on the subjective
experience of the individual does little to explain or appreciate the impact of
society on personality development.

 Furthermore, the hierarchy of needs has been accused of cultural bias—

mainly reflecting Western values and ideologies.

 Critics argue that this concept is considered relative to each culture and

society and cannot be universally applied
Types of personality

 Based on earlier research by Greek Physician Hippocrates

 Were base on temperaments(ones innate reactions to world stimuli)
 Sanguine- Extroverted, lively and care-free.
 Thrive in travel and influencing.
 Curious, creative, spontaneous, impulsive, goal-oriented, optimistic, and
cheerful.
 A sanguine is capable of talking to new friends like they have known them for
a longer time.
 Phlegmatic- Harmonious and value relationships. Thrive as teachers and
nurses

 Phlegmatic temperament people are slow to warm up to others but will

make friends fairly easily.

 They are one of the easiest temperament types to get along with because
they are so agreeable and patient.

 However, they stick closely to their routines and resist change.

 Choleric personalities- -Goal-oriented, analytical and logical. Thrive as
leaders and engineers.

 are hot, dry, fiery, creatures. At their best they're ambitious, brave and
proud, but they can also be vindictive, deceitful and violent.

 And without exception, they are irritable and bad-tempered. 

 Melancholic- Deep thinkers, self-reliant and reserved. Thrive in the artistic
field

 A melancholic person is typically very calm and quiet despite his or her

powerful internal emotions.

 These individuals often choose to hide their feelings, preferring to remain

calm and quiet even during events that typically elicit extreme joy or anger in
others.
 Personality traits influencing
organizational behaviour
 Authoritarianism

 It is coined to Adorno who defines it as “This concept refers to a belief that

there should be status and power differences among people in organizations”.
It places high moral value to rules and regulations.

 Bureaucratic personality

 This personality is respectful to rules and regulations but is not blind to them.
They are good supervisors and thrive under routine, repetition and procedure as
they lack creativity and innovation.
 Machiavellianism
 This personality is named after Niccolo Machiavelli and has the following
characteristics;
 They maintain emotional distance
 They are manipulative
 They flourish in face-face communication
 The less the rules the more they succeed
 High confidence and self esteem
 Friendship, trust and loyalty are not their strong suits
 Introversion and extroversion
 These terms are the polar opposites of each other in terms of interpersonal
relationships.
 Extroverts are people’s people.
 They are sociable, easy to engage with and easy-going people in social
settings. Whereas, introverts are shy, quiet and difficult to communicate
with.
 Extroverts work well with people whereas introverts are best left alone
without any external influences.
 Problem solving style
 Each person has their own way they like to solve problems. All these ways can
be drawn back to these four ways based on organizational behavior bu Don H.
John W. and Richard W.
 Sensation feeling style
 The people who use this are dependable, friendly and social. They approach
problems with human concern. People such as social workers and teachers.
 Sensational thinking style

 -These people are practical, logical and sensitive to detail. They do not factor
in human emotion to the argument. People such as engineers and accountants

 Intuition feeling style

 These people are always looking for ways to help and tend to appeal to
people’s emotions. People like politicians and public relations
 Intuition Thinking Style

 These people use creative ways to solve problems. They do not necessarily go
by the book but they get the job done.

 These people include lawyers and system designers.

 Achievement Orientation

 This personality trait is based on one’s need to meet goals. Some people have
high achievement orientation while others have low achievement orientation.


 People with high achievement orientation want to feel that the success and
failure is due to their own performance.

 They tend to reach for the harder tasks to feel more achieved. The low
achievement orientation people choose to put in as little as they can to
achieve their goals.
 Locus of control

 This refers to a one’s belief that events are either within one’s control (internal
locus of control) or determined forces beyond one’s control (external locus of
control).
 Characteristics of internal locus of control is;
 They have more control over their behavior, words, actions etc.
 They seek as much information to be able to make decisions
 Socially active
 They are independent hence cannot be swayed by opinions of others
 They are more prone to leadership positions
 Characteristics of external locus of control
 They have the highest absenteeism rate as they are dissatisfied with their
jobs
 They are inclined towards job security rather than security
 They prefer rewards for their achievements
 Self esteem
 This refers to the feeling of like and dislike for oneself. It has interesting
effects to organizational behavior.
 It can largely affect success expectations. Those with high self esteem tend to
succeed more than those with low self esteem
 High self esteem individuals take higher risks as opposed to those with low
self esteem as they do not believe in themselves.
 Low self esteem individuals are more likely to be influenced by external
factors and opinions as they seek validation
 High self esteem people are more satisfied with their jobs hence produce
better output
 Self-monitoring
 This is the personality trait that measures one’s ability to adjust his or her
behavior to external situational factors. As much as it is a recent discovery
that has recently been researched, the following have already been
established
 High self monitors have the ability to present different personalities to
public, personal and private selves. This enables them to adjust according to
the environment. Low self monitors lack that trait hence do not have that
divide.
 High self monitors can monitor people’s emotions and deal eith them
appropriately.
 Risk taking

 This trait affects the decision making capability of a person based off of one’s
willingness to take a chance. There are people who are highly conscious and
analytical in making decisions. As this is a good thing in most cases,
sometimes, a rapid response is required and this becomes negative. Some jobs
such as managerial jobs, brokers etc. these people are required to constantly
take risks.

 People who take risks are quick thinkers and daring. As to be able to take the
risk, one is admitting responsibility to the outcome, whether good or bad.
Type A and Type B personality

 People with type A personality are highly competitive and have the go-getter
attitude where as type B personalities are more analytical and laid back.

 In matters work, type A are prone to quick and fast moving assignments
where as type B prefer long-term complex tasks.

 Type A prioritize speed where as type B prefer details

Advantages of having both types of
personality in an organization
 Balances strengths and weaknesses in the workplace

 In an organization where the personalities are balanced allows them to

equalize and neutralize each other.

 The risk-takers are held back by the analytical type.

 If one personality type rules over the others, it will be an issue as an

organization can end up having an aggressive team that does not calculate
risks or a quiet team that does not venture out

 Improves decision making

 As humans, we all bare different opinions and thoughts.

 When you bring in different personalities and characters in a workplace, you

get diverse trains of thought that if well controlled and nurtured, can be a
great thing.

  
 Increases productivity

 As the Type A employees take charge of all the short-term and exhilarating
tasks, Type B work on the long-term assignments that require keenness and
patience.

 When this is being simultaneously in an organization, productivity levels are

higher as compared to having one type.
Disadvantages of having different
personality types
 Misunderstanding
 Different groups have different perspectives and views of almost every
aspect.
 If not properly directed, it can be the rise of many arguments and
misunderstanding, conflicts in organizations
 Superiority complex among different personality

 A group of people with a similar personality type in the organization may feel
like they are above the others due to factors such as work covered,
interaction with customers and many others
Personality disorders?

 Personality disorders are mental health conditions that involve a few

personality traits that tend to cause great distress and represent challenges in
different aspects of your life.
 The American Psychiatric Association’s 
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) groups personality
disorders into three distinct categories: cluster A, cluster B, and cluster C.
 Cluster A personality disorders involve odd and eccentric traits, and include:
 paranoid personality disorder
 schizotypal personality disorder
 schizoid personality disorder
 Cluster B personality disorders involve dramatic, emotional, and erratic traits, and include:
 narcissistic personality disorder (NPD)
 antisocial personality disorder
 borderline personality disorder (BPD)
 histrionic personality disorder (HPD)
 Cluster C personality disorders involve fearful and anxious traits, and include:
 obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (not to be confused with obsessive-compulsive
disorder (OCD)
 dependent personality disorder
 avoidant personality disorder
 Why do personality disorders develop?
 A number of factors could be at play, including genes, physiological
processes, traumatic events, cultural impact, and childhood experiences.
 Although living with a personality disorder can be difficult, these conditions
can be managed with the support of a mental health professional.
References

 https://psychcentral.com/health/what-is-personality
 https://
www.economicsdiscussion.net/management/personality/personality-introduc
tion/32465
 https://www.careershodh.com/personality-definitions-nature-characteristics
/
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality
 https://www.britannica.com/topic/personality